STAT!?.  NORMAL  SCHOOL 


WORKS   OF 
PROFESSOR    SAMUEL    B.    GREEN 

PUBLISHED   BY 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS 


Principles  of  American  Forestry. 

This  work  on  Elementary  Forestry  has  been 
prepared  especially  for  students  and  others 
beginning  this  subject.  Among  the  subjects 
treated  are:  Tree  growth,  the  forest,  forest  in- 
fluences, tree  planting  on  prairies,  forest  re- 
generation, propagation,  nursery  practice, 
forest  protection,  forest  mensuration,  forest 
problems,  uses  of  wood,  forest  economics, 
sylvicultural  data,  etc.  347  pages,  12mo. 
Profusely  illustrated,  cloth  bound.  Price, 
$1.50. 


PUBLISHED     BY    WEBB     PUBLISHING    COMPANY 
St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Popular  Fruit  Growing:. 

A  thoroughly  practical  work  treating  on  the 
factors  of  successful  fruit  growing,  orchard 
protection,  insects  injurious  to  fruits,  diseases 
injurious  to  Iruits,  spraying  and  spraying 
apparatus,  harvesting  and  marketing,  prin- 
ciples of  plant  growth,  propagation  of  fruit 
plants,  pome  fruits,  stone  fruits,  grapes,  small 
fruits,  nuts,  etc.,  etc.  Profusely  illustrated, 
300  pages,  5X7  inches.  Price,  cloth,  $1.00. 

Vegetable  Gardening:. 

A  Manual  on  the  Growing  of  Vegetables  for 
Home  Use  and  Marketing,  treating  on  irriga- 
tion, manures,  tillage,  garden  implements, 
seed  sowing,  glass  structures,  insects  injurious, 
to  vegetables  and  their  destruction,  classifica- 
tion of  vegetables,  garden  herbs,  tables  and 
monthly  calendar  of  garden  operations.  256 
pages,  12mo.  Cloth  binding,  Price,  $1.00. 


PRINCIPLES 


OF 


AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


SAMUEL    B.    GREEN, 

Late  Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry,  University  of  Minnesota , 

Member    of    the    Forest    Reserve   Board    of   the   State    of 

Minnesota;  A  uthor  of ' '  Forestry  in  Minnesota.''^ 


FIRST  EDITION. 

SIXTH   THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK : 

JOHN  WILEY   &    SONS. 
LONDON:    CHAPMAN  &   HALL,   LIMITED. 

1913 


Copyright,  1903, 

BY 
SAMUEL  B.  GREEN, 


«  SCIENT 
BROOKLV 


313 
?ap 


PREFACE. 


THIS  is  a  book  on  elementary  forestry,  and  has  been  pre- 
pared especially  for  students  and  others  beginning  this  sub- 
ject. It  is  also  intended  for  the  general  reader  who  wishes 
to  secure  a  general  idea  of  the  subject  of  forestry  in  North 
America. 

Much  of  the  matter  included  herein  was  originally  pub- 
lished by  the  Geological  and  National  History  Survey  of 
Minnesota  under  the  title  "  Forestry  in  Minnesota."  The 
favor  with  which  that  work  was  received  has  encouraged 
the  publishers  to  get  out  this  volume,  in  which  the  matter  is 
treated  in  a  more  general  way  and  enlarged  to  better  adapt 
it  to  the  whole  country. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 
UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA, 
ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  MINN.,  April,  1903. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


THE  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  help  which  he  has 
received  from  his  assistants,  Mr.  T.  L.  Duncan,  Mr.  H. 
Cuzner  and  Mr.  T.  L.  Erickson,  in  revising  the  manuscript 
and  in  various  other  ways. 

Figure  49  is  loaned  by  Professor  John  Gifford. 
"      14  is  loaned  by  Mr.  H.  B.  Ayres. 

"      50  is  from  W.  H.  Rau. 

v 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   TREE. 

Stem,  branches  and  roots,  1.  Bark,  2.  Sapwood,  3.  Heartwood, 
3.  Roots,  3.  Buds,  5.  Leaves,  5.  Flowers,  6.  Fruit,  6.  Seed,  6. 
Distribution  of  seeds,  7. 

TREE     GROWTH. 

Assimilation,  8.  Transpiration,  8.  Mineral  substances,  9.  Soil 
of  woodlands  improved,  9.  Rest  period  of  plants,  11.  Amount  of 
water  lost  by  trees  in  winter,  11.  Second  growth,  12. 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE   FOREST. 

Arboriculture,  13.  Sylviculture,  13.  Tree  growth,  13.  Sunlight, 
13.  Trees  mutually  helpful,  14.  Soil  conditions,  14.  Water  sup- 
ply, 14.  Relation  between  trees  and  soils,  15.  Mechanical  condi- 
tion of  land  in  forests,  16.  Undergrowth  in  forests,  16.  Forest 
floor,  17.  Subsoil,  17.  Washing  of  soils,  17.  Alkali  soils,  18. 
Effect  of  slope  on  forests,  18  :  northern  slope,  19;  eastern  slope,  19; 
southern  slope,  19;  western  slope,  20. 

CHAPTER  III. 

FOREST   INFLUENCES. 

On  water  supplies,  22  ;  On  precipitation,  26;  on  disposal  of  water 
supplies,  27. 
Elements  of  Dissipation,  27;  of  conservation,  35;  Distribution  of 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

water,  36.  Forest  infhiences  on  wind  and  hail  storms,  37;  on  fogs 
and  clouds,  38.  Improvement  of  land  on  which  trees  grow,  38. 
Prairies,  why  treeless,  39.  Rainfall  and  height  of  water  table  in 
land,  40.  Source  of  our  hot  winds,  42. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PLANTING  ON   PRAIRIES. 

Windbreaks,  45:  Shelter  belts,  45.  List  of  trees  for  planting,  52. 
Cultivation  and  thinning,  55.  Location  of  farm  buildings,  59. 

CHAPTER  V. 

FOREST   REGENERATION. 

Regeneration  statements,  62.  The  selection  methods.  Strip 
method,  64.  Group  method,  65.  Regeneration  by  artificial  seed- 
ing, 67;  by  planting  seedlings,  70;  by  sprouts  and  suckers,  73. 
Thinning,  76.  Improvement  cuttings,  78.  The  farm  wood-lot,  78. 
Osier  willows,  79. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PROPAGATION. 

By  seeds,  84.  Gathering  and  storing  seeds,  84-87.  Stratification 
of  seeds,  88.  Storing  and  sowing  of  seeds,  88-98.  Raising  conifer- 
ous seedlings  of  different  kinds,  95.  Amount  of  seed  to  sow,  98. 
Table  showing  approximate  height  of  one-year-old  seedlinsrs,  99. 
Cuttings,  care  and  management,  101-105.  Layers,  care  and  man- 
agement, 105. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

NURSERY  PRACTICE. 

Soil  and  cultivation  for  the  nursery,  109.  Grades  of  nursery 
stock,  110.  Transplanting,  111.  Heeling-in,  116.  Pruning,  118. 
Care  and  management  of  street  trees,  122.  Watering,  126.  Packing 
nursery  stock,  128. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

FOREST  PROTECTION. 

Injuries  to  trees  by  insects,  133;  by  mice,  birds,  and  other  animals, 
136-138;  by  severe  winters,  139;  frost,  tender  and  frost-hardy  trees, 
140.  Sleet  storms,  141.  Frost  cracks,  142;  by  wind,  143,  by  sun 
scald,  145.  Fungus  diseases,  146,  by  forest  fires,  146-155.  Some 
notable  forest  fires,  155,  156.  Sand  dunes,  156-159. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

RATE   OF   INCREASE   IK   TIMBER   TREES. 

Life  history  of  a  mature  tree,  162.  The  profit  from  an  invest- 
ment in  forest  land,  164.  Willow  for  fuel,  165. 

CHAPTER  X. 

FOREST   MENSURATION. 

Methods  of  measuring  single  trees,  167-176.  Table  of  areas  of 
circles  171.  Compound  interest  table,  172.  Methods  of  measuring 
growing  stock,  173.  Rate  of  growth  in  trees,  175.  Pressler's  table, 
178.  The  accretion  of  a  felled  tree,  178.  The  accretion  of  a  forest, 
180.  The  working  plan,  180.  Estimation  of  standing  timber,  181. 
Practical  measurement  of  logs  and  lumber,  181.  Scribner's  rule, 
183.  Table.  Doyle's  rule,  185.  New  Hampshire  rule,  186.  In- 
struments used  in  forest  mensuration,  187. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

FOREST   PROBLEMS. 

Twenty-five  forest  problems  stated  and  answers  given  to  each  one. 
Designed  to  be  suggestive  of  the  different  phases  of  forest  regener- 
ation and  management,  195-216. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  USES  OF  WOOD. 

Quarter-sawing  of  wood,  223.    Fuel  value  of  woods,  227-229. 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

DURABILITY  OF   WOOD. 

Causes  of  decay,  230.  The  curing  of  wood,  234.  Preserving  of 
wood,  235-240. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

FOREST  ECONOMICS. 

Alarm  about  the  destruction  of  forests,  241.  Value  of  forest 
industry  of  Minnesota,  242.  Possibilities  of  yield  of  its  forest  area, 
243.  Forestry  requires  capital,  244.  Normal  growing  stock,  241. 
Normal  income,  245.  Capital  growing  stock,  246.  Actual 
income,  246.  Increasing  value  of  forests,  246.  Unproductive  for- 
est lands,  247.  European  systems  of  forest  management,  247. 
Taxes  on  timber  land,  248.  Income  from  game  preserves,  248. 
Forest  reservations  and  national  parks,  250.  Forestry  vs.  lumber- 
ing, 252.  Forest  fire  laws,  257. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

TABULAR    CLASSIFICATION,    SYLVICULTURAL    DATA,    AND    USES 
OF  IMPORTANT  AMERICAN  TIMBER  TREES 261 

GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  USED  IN  FORESTRY 307 

A  LIST  OF  THE  BEST  BOOKS  ON  FORESTRY . .  .318,  319 

PUBLICATIONS   OF  THE   BUREAU   OF  FORESTRY  AND   OTHER 
U.  S.  DEPARTMENTS  OF  SPECIAL  INTEREST  TO  STUDENTS  320 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


no. 

1.  Cross-section  of  woody  stems. 

2.  Characteristic  root  formations. 

3.  A  young  White  Willow  windbreak  on  dry  prairie. 

4.  A  good  tree  claim  in  Minnesota  near  the  Dakota  Line. 

5.  Hardy  Catalpa.     Plantation  of  South  Amona  Colony,  Kansas. 

6.  Suggestion  for  laying  out  the  farmstead. 

7.  Suggestion  in  detail  for  laying  out  grounds  about  buildings  on 

a  prairie  farm. 

8.  Virgin  forest  in  Minnesota. 

9.  Trees  with  branches  cut  off  before  falling,  so  as  to  prevent  in- 

jury to  young  growth  around  them. 

10.  Diagram  illustrating  the  system  followed  in  the  Group  Method 

of  cutting. 

11.  Tree  seeds  sown  in  patches  in  old  woodland. 

12.  Good  natural  regeneration  of  Spruce  in  Manitoba. 

13.  A  fine  young  growth  of  Norway  Spruce  in  the  forest  garden  of 

the  "Giessen  Forestry  School"  in  Hessen,  Germany. 

14.  Woodroad,  Giessen,  Germany. 

15.  Old  Pine  cuttings  after  being  once  burned  over. 

16.  Showing  method  of  planting  in  furrows  on  old  hillside  pastures. 

Furrows  are  made  in  autumn  and  extend  across  the  slope  to 
prevent  washing.     These  should  be  made  as  level  as  possible- 

17.  Showing  proper  way  of  cutting  pollards  and  growth  after  same 

has  been  cut. 

18.  Crowded  and  open-grown  Norway  Pine. 

19.  Showing  Osier  Willow  Holt  partly  cut  and  standing. 

20.  Cross-section  of  stratifying  pit  for  storing  seeds  during  winter^ 

covered  with  inverted  sods. 

21.  A  Danish  storehouse  for  nut  seeds,  where  5000  bushels  of  acorns 

and  beech  nuts  are  stored  each  winter.     The  nuts  are  put  in 
18  inches  deep  and  turned  every  day. 

xi 


xii  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG. 

22.  Some  common  winged  seeds.     (1)  Black  Ash;    (2)  White  Ash; 

(3)  Willow;  (4)  Soft  Maple;  (5)  Basswood;  (6)  Box  Elder; 
(7)  Red  Elm;  (8)  White  Elm;  (9)  White  Birch;  (10)  Sugar 
Maple;  (11)  Tamarack;  (12)  Pine;  (13)  Noble  Fir;  (14) 
Hardy  Catalpa. 

23.  Evergreen  seed-bed  shaded  with  a  screen  of  old  brush  placed 

on  a  frame. 

24.  A  bunch  of  Willow  cuttings. 

25.  Planted  cuttings,  showing  angle  and  depth  at  which  to  plan 

cuttings. 

26.  The    solar    pit,  showing  bundles    of  cuttings    in  place    under 

glass. 

27.  Showing  method  of  mound  layering. 

28.  A  bunch  of  Green  Ash  seedlings. 

29.  Extra  good  roots  on  forest-grown  Elm,  used  as  a  street  tree. 

30.  Moving  large  trees  in  winter  (After  P.  S.  Peterson  &  Co.) 

31.  Successive  steps  in  planting  young  evergreens  and  other  very 

small  seedlings. 

32.  Heeling-in.     Various  stages  of  the  operation. 

33.  Showing  the  proper  place  to  make  the  cut,  in  pruning.     A 

wound  made  on  the  dotted  line  A-B  will  be  promptly  healed 
One  made  on  the  line  C-D  or  E-F  will  not.  In  Fig.  52  the 
lower  branch  was  cut  off  too  far  from  the  trunk.  (After  Goff.) 

34.  Showing  how  to  make  the  cut  in  pruning  large  branches.     The 

upper  cut,  all  made  from  above,  permits  the  branch  to  split 
down.  The  left  cut,  first  made  partly  from  below,  prevents 
splitting  down.  (After  Goff.) 

35.  Sections  of    trunk  of    tree    showing   wounds   properly  healed. 

(After  Hartig). 

36.  An  overgrown  wound  where  branch  has  been  cut  off,  but  decay 

started  before  wound  had  healed  over  and  is  liable  to  con- 
tinue further.  (After  Hartig). 

37.  Soft  Maple  not  pruned  since  it  was  planted  out.     It  has  long 

branches  that  are  liable  to  break  down. 

38.  Soft  Maple  once  pruned,  showing  close  head  that  is  not  liable 

to  break  down. 

39.  Soft  Maple  several  times  pruned  preserving  a  main  central  axis. 

A  good  form. 

40.  Elm  street-tree  properly  trimmed  for  planting. 

41.  Elm  tree  that  has  been  planted  five  years,  and  was  pruned  to 

a  bare  pole  when  set  out. 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  Xlll 

FIG. 

42.  Cross-section  of  a  box  packed  with  two-year-old  Green  Ash, 

Box-elder,  and  Birch. 

43.  Cross-section  of  a  box  packed  with  Pine  seedlings.     The  roots 

are  covered  with  moist  sphagnum  moss. 

44.  Plants  assembled  together  for  packing  in  a  bale. 

45.  The  bale  ready  for  covering. 

46.  The  bale  completed. 

47.  White  Willow  windbreak  seriously  injured  by  successive  attacks 

of  saw-fly  larvae. 

48.  Seedlings  set  close  to  stumps  to  protect  them  from  the  tramp- 

ling of  cattle. 

49.  Heaving  out  by  frost. 

50.  Trees  heavily  loaded  with  ice  after  a  sleet  storm. 

51.  Old  frost  cracks  in  Sugar  Maple. 

52.  Trunk  of  Soft  Maple  badly  sunscalded. 

53.  Section  of  trunk  of  sunscalded  Basswood. 

54.  Agaricus  Melleus. 

55.  A  fire  ball. 

56.  Firebreak  on  a  great  sand  dune  in  France,  which  has  been  suc- 

cessfully covered  with  Pine. 

57.  Sand  dune  near  Seven  Mile  Beach,  New  Jersey. 

58.  Cross-section  of  White  Pine  crowded  and  then  open-grown. 

59.  Cross-section  of  White  Pine  open-grown. 

60.  Measuring  the  height  of  a  tree  by  a  simple  geometrical  method. 

61.  Determining  the  volume  of  a  felled  tree. 

62.  The  progressive  volume  of  a  tree. 

63.  Calipering  a  tree. 

64.  Forstman's  Mirror  Hypsometer. 

65.  The  Mirror  Hypsometer  in  use. 

66.  The  accretion  borer. 

67.  Using  the  accretion  borer  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 

68.  Common  method  of  quarter-sawing  Yellow  Pine  for  flooring. 

69.  Showing  method  of  quarter-sawing  to  bring  out  the  figure  of  the 

wood  to  best  advantage. 

70.  "Shelf"  fungus  on  the  stem  of  a  Pine.     (Hartig.) 

71.  Schonmunzack  in  the  Black  Forest,  Germany,  showing  a  cori- 

bination  of  forestry,  farming,  and  manufacturing. 

72.  Combination  of  city,  park,  and  forestry  at  Heidelberg,  Germany 

73.  Scene  in  the  Black  Forest  near  Oberthal,  Germany,  near  a 

popular  resort. 


\    -   V  -A    <» 


PRINCIPLES  OF  AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  TREE. 

A  TREE  is  a  woody  plant  with  a  single  stem  more  or  less 
branched  and  taking  on  what  is  commonly  known  as  the 
tree  form. 

The  most  evident  parts  of  a  tree  are  roots,  stem  or  trunk, 
branches,  buds,  leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  and  seed. 

The  Stem,  Branches,  and  Roots  are  made  up  of  inner 
bark,  outer  bark,  sapwood,  and  heartwood.  The  outer  bark, 
sapwood,  and  heartwood  are  made  up  of  concentric  circles 
termed  annual  rings.  During  each  period  of  growth  two 
new  rings  are  formed — one  on  the  outside  of  the  sapwood 
and  another  on  the  inside  of  the  outer  bark,  and  as  we  sel- 
dom have  more  than  one  season  of  growth  each  year  but 
one  ring  is  formed  on  the  wood  in  a  year;  so  that  by 
counting  the  rings  of  wood  in  the  stem  we  can  determine 
very  closely  the  age  of  trees.  In  very  rare  cases  we  have 
two  periods  of  growth  and  two  rings  of  wood  in  one  year,  as 
in  1894,  when  the  drought  of  midsummer  ripened  up  the 
wood  of  the  trees  by  the  first  of  August  and  the  rains  of 
autumn  started  a  new  growth  and  caused  some  trees  and 
shrubs  to  flower  in  October,  but  such  occurrences  are  very 
uncommon  and  the  extra  rings  formed  are  readily  detected 
by  their  being  smaller  than  adjoining  rings  and  less  dis- 
tinctly defined.  The  age  of  trees  could  be  told  by  the 
rings  of  the  outer  bark  nearly  as  well  as  by  those  of  the 


PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

wood  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  outer  layers  of  bark 
fall  off  as  the  tree  grows  older. 

Wood  once  hardened  never  changes,  and  the  branches 
are  practically  always  at  the  same  height  from  the  ground 
They  might  be  raised  a  little  by  the  thickening  of  the 
main  roots. 


FIG.  1. — Cross-section  of  Woody  Stem.  Diagram  showing  (a)  outer 
bark,  (ft)  inner  bark  or  bast,  (r)  cambium,  (d,  e,  f,  g,  and  h)  annual 
rings  of  wood,  and  ({)  pith. 

In  some  experiments  the  bark  of  rapidly  growing 
branches  was  peeled  back  in  the  spring  for  a  few  inches,  the 
wood  covered  with  tin-foil  and  the  bark  replaced.  At 
the  end  of  the  season  there  was  found  a  ring  of  wood  out- 
side of  the  tin-foil,  thus  showing  where  the  annual  growth 
of  the  tree  was  made. 

The  Bark  covers  the  whole  exterior  surface  of  the  trunk, 
branches,  and  roots  and  serves  as  a  protection.  It  is  made 


THE   TKEE.  3 

up  of  two  parts,  the  outer  or  corky  layer  which  is  dead 
bark  and  the  inner  or  live  bark.  These  vary  much  in  ap- 
pearance and  thickness  on  different  kinds  of  trees.  For 
instance,  on  the  White  Birch  the  corky  layer  is  pure  white, 
very  thin  and  tough,  while  on  our  White  Pine  it  is  very 
dark  brown  and  often  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness  and 
quite  brittle. 

The  Sapwood  is  the  portion  of  the  wood  next  to  the  bark. 
It  varies  much  in  thickness  in  different  species  and  in  trees 
of  the  same  species ;  the  most  rapidly  grown  trees  contain 
the  largest  amount.  It  is  the  most  active  portion  of  the 
wood  in  the  growing  tree,  and  contains  considerable  plant- 
food  and  more  water  than  the  heartwood. 

The  Heartwood  is  the  wood  in  the  centre  of  the  trunk  and 
is  generally  distinguished  from  the  sapwood  by  its  more 
compact  structure  and  darker  color,  though  in  some  cases 
it  may  be  lighter  colored  than  the  sapwood.  It  is  also 
harder  and  more  valuable  for  fuel,  shrinks  less  in  drying, 
and  is  more  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil  than  the  sap- 
wood.  There  is  very  little  movement  of  the  sap  in  the 
heartwood. 

The  Roots  furnish  water  and  nourishment  that  the 
plant  receives  from  the  soil,  but  only  the  young  roots  have 
the  power  of  taking  up  the  soil  water;  the  older  roots  are 
most  useful  in  holding  the  tree  in  place.  It  is  common  to 
classify  roots  into  surface  roots  and  tap-roots,  depending 
on  their  shape  and  the  depth  they  go  in  the  ground.  Some 
trees  have  nearly  all  surface  roots,  as  the  Birch  and  Spruce, 
others  have  nearly  all  tap-roots,  which  often  go  to  a  great 
depth  on  dry  land,  as  those  of  the  Bur  Oak,  White  Oak, 
Black  Walnut,  and  Butternut.  Most  of  our  trees  have  a 
combination  of  the  two  kinds,  as  the  Maple,  Hackberry, 
and  Ash.  Seedling  trees  of  most  kinds  have  a  decided  tap- 
root when  young,  but  in  many  species  it  ceases  to  grow 
downward  when  a  few  years  old.  This  is  true  of  the  Red 


4  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

and  Scarlet  Oaks,  which  often  have  a  tap-root  extending 
four  feet  in  depth  before  the  tree  has  attained  a  correspond- 
ing height  above  ground,  but  after  about  five  years  large 
lateral  roots  develop  and  the  growth  of  the  tap-root  nearly 
ceases. 

Root-growth  is  relatively  less  to  the  extent  of  ground 


FIG.  2. — Characteristic  Koot  Formation.  On  the  left  two  Hack- 
berry,  on  the  right  two  White  Birch,  each  two-year  seedlings  from 
same  seed-bed;  the  first  with  a  divided  tap-root,  the  second 
without  tap-root. 


occupied  in  moist  and  fertile  soil  than  in  dry  and  poor  soil, 
but  the  roots  are  proportionately  more  branched.  In  wet 
seasons  the  root  development  is  less  for  a  given  plant  than 
in  dry  seasons,  because  the  roots  may  get  their  needed 
food  and  water  from  a  small  area.  Nursery  trees  grown  on 
moist  rich  land  have  a  more  compact  root  system  than 
those  grown  on  poor  land. 

At  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  a  small  Bur  Oak 


THE   TREE.  5 

growing  on  dry,  gravelly  soil  had  a  tap-root  that  was 
evidently  twenty  feet  long,  while  on  moist  fertile  clay 
land  in  the  same  section  such  trees  probably  seldom  have 
tap-roots  more  than  six  feet  long. 

Buds  are  placed  regularly  on  the  young  branches  and  are 
said  to  be  either  alternate  or  opposite.  When  they  occur 
on  the  stump  or  on  roots  they  are  not  arranged  in  any  regu- 
lar order.  There  are  two  kinds  of  buds — flower-buds, 
which  develop  into  flowers  and  fruit;  and  leaf -buds,  which 
develop  into  leaves  and  branches.  These  can  generally  be 
distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  shape  and  size  and 
by  cutting  through  them  and  noting  their  construction. 
Flower-buds  are  generally  more  liable  to  injury  from 
climatic  changes  than  leaf-buds. 

The  Leaves  of  our  trees  vary  much  in  size  and  shape. 
They  are  simple  when  composed  of  but  one  piece,  as  the 
leaves  of  the  Oak,  Maple,  and  Birch,  and  compound  when 
composed  of  more  than  one  piece,  as  the  leaves  of  the 
Locust,  Ash,  and  Black  Walnut.  Leaves  are  made  up  of  a 
framework  filled  in  with  cellular  tissue  and  covered  with 
a  thin  skin.  This  skin  has  very  many  small  pores  in  it 
called  stomata,  through  which  the  plant  takes  in  carbon 
dioxide  from  the  air  and  gives  off  oxygen  and  water. 

All  our  trees  shed  at  least  a  part  of  their  leaves  each 
year.  All  the  broad-leaved  trees  and  the  Tamarack  shed 
their  entire  foliage  yearly,  while  our  so-called  evergreen 
trees  lose  a  part  of  their  leaves  each  year.  The  length  of 
time  leaves  remain  on  this  latter  class  of  trees  varies  from 
two  or  three  years,  in  the  case  of  White  Pine  growing  in 
very  severe  locations,  to  perhaps  eight  years,  in  the  case 
of  Red  Cedar  favorably  located.  The  time  that  leaves 
remain  on  the  branches  of  evergreens  depends  to  some 
extent  on  the  location  and  age  of  the  individual  tree. 

The  following  table  gives  the  approximate  length  of  time 
that  leaves  of  conifers  remain  on  trees  in  Minnesota: 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


LENGTH  OF  TIME  THAT  LEAVES  OF  CONIFERS  REMAIN 
ON  TREES  IN  MINNESOTA. 


Botanical  Name. 

Common  Name. 

Year  of  Falling. 

Pinus  strobus 

White  Pine 

2d  and  3d 

Western  White  Pine 

5th  and  6th 

Pinns  resinosa  

Norway  Pine  

-1th  and  5th. 

Pinus  divaricata   .  .  . 

Jack  Pine 

2d  and  3d 

Pinus  ponderosa  scopulorum 

Bull  Pine 

3d  and  4th 

Pinus  sylvestris 

Scotch  Pine 

3d 

Pinus  laricio  austriaca  
Pinus  montana  putnila  
Larix  laricina    

Austrian  Pine  
Dwarf  Pine  
Tamarack  .    . 

4th  and  5th. 
5th,  6th,  and  7th. 
1st  winter 

Larix  europea 

European  Larch 

1st  winter 

White  Spruce 

4th  and  5th 

Picea  mariana  
Picea  parri/ana  
Picea  engelmanni  
Picea  excelsa 

Black  Spruce  
Blue  Spruce  
Engelmann  Spruce.  . 
Norway  Spruce 

4th  and  5th. 
6th  and  7th. 
5th  and  6th. 
5th 

Hemlock 

2d  and  3d 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  

Douglas  Spruce  

5th. 

Abies  balsamea  
Abies  concolor 

Balsam  Fir  
White  Fir  

5th. 
5th. 

Thuja  occidentalis 

Arborvitse 

4th  and  5th 

Red  Cedar 

5th  and  6th 

Juniperus  communis  

Dwarf  Juniper  

5th  and  6th. 

Flowers  are  parts  of  the  plant  especially  modified  for  the 
reproduction  of  the  plant  by  seed.  Both  sexual  organs 
may  be  located  together  in  the  same  flower,  as  those  of  the 
Basswood,  Mountain  Ash,  and  Cherry;  or  in  separate 
flowers  on  the  same  plant,  as  those  of  the  Birch,  Oak,  and 
Black  Walnut ;  or  they  may  be  separate  on  entirely  different 
plants,  as  in  the  Willow,  Poplar,  Box-elder,  and  Ash. 

The  Fruit,  botam'cally  defined,  is  the  seed-containing 
area,  derived  from  a  single  flower.  As  used  in  nursery 
practice  the  term  is  generally  applied  to  seeds  having  a 
fleshy  covering  or  an  adjoining  fleshy  part. 

The  Seed,  botanically  defined,  is  the  ripened  ovule,  but 
as  the  term  is  used  in  nursery  practice  it  often  includes  the 
ovary  and  other  parts  that  may  be  attached  to  it.  What 


THE   TREE.  7 

is  commonly  called  the  seed  of  Maple,  Ash,  Elm,  Walnut, 
and  Basswood  is  really  the  fruit. 

Distribution  of  Seeds.  The  seeds  of  plants  are  distrib- 
uted in  various  ways,  the  most  common  of  which  are  (1) 
by  means  of  floats  or  wings  which  buoy  the  seeds  up  in  the 
air  or  water,  and  (2)  by  animals.  The  seeds  of  Ash,  Arbor- 
vita?,  Box-elder,  Catalpa,  Elm,  Maple,  Pine,  and  Spruce  have 
wings  which  allow  them  to  be  blown  great  distances  by  the 
wind,  especially  when  they  break  loose  from  the  upper 
branches  of  high  trees  during  severe  winds.  The  seeds  of 
the  Honey  Locust  are  not  shed  from  the  pod  until  after  it 
has  fallen,  and  as  the  pod  is  ten  inches  or  more  long  and 
spirally  twisted  it  may  be  blown  long  distances  on  level 
ground  or  snow  crust.  The  seeds  of  the  poplars  and  wil- 
lows have  a  cottony  float  attachment  which  buoys  them 
up  in  the  air.  In  the  case  of  the  Basswood,  the  parachute- 
like  bract  attached  to  the  seed-cluster  aids  in  spreading  the 
seeds  by  carrying  them  through  the  air  or  along  the  snow 
crust.  The  seeds  of  Mountain  Ash,  Wild  Black  Cherry, 
Hawthorn,  and  others  are  largely  distributed  by  wild  ani- 
mals which  eat  the  fruit  and  allow  the  seeds  to  pass  through 
the  alimentary  canal  uninjured  or  carry  off  the  fruit  and 
spit  out  the  seeds.  Many  seeds  or  seed-vessels  have  bur- 
like  or  sticky  coats  by  which  they  adhere  to  animals  and 
are  thus  carried  considerable  distances.  Very  often  bodies 
of  water  aid  in  the  distribution  of  seeds,  since  all  that  are 
spread  by  the  agency  of  the  wind  and  most  of  those  that 
have  fleshy  coverings  will  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  may  in  this  way  be  scattered. 

Shapes  of  Trees.  Different  species  of  trees  naturally 
develop  different  shapes.  Some,  like  Spruces,  Tamarack, 
and  Balsam,  have  a  decided  tendency  to  form  a  strong  stem 
and  to  take  on  a  conical  form  in  preference  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  crown  or  head;  while  others,  like  the  Basswood, 
Oaks,  Maples,  and  Box-elder,  develop  their  crown  in  pref-» 


8  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

erence  to  their  stem.  The  actual  shape  of  trees  depends 
on  the  space  they  have  to  grow  in,  on  the  soil,  situation, 
and  on  the  age  of  the  trees.  Where  trees  have  plenty  of 
room  to  grow,  and  their  natural  development  is  not  inter- 
fered with,  their  individual  characteristics  are  most  ap- 
parent. 

TREE-GROWTH. 

Assimilation.  Plants  are  made  up  of  various  tissues  and 
these  are  formed  of  numerous  cells.  The  material  of  which 
the  cells  are  composed  is  largely  carbon.  This  carbon  is 
derived  from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  which  enters  into 
the  leaves  and  under  the  action  of  light,  air,  and  water  is 
there  decomposed ;  the  oxygen  is  given  off  and  the  carbon 
is  retained,  and,  combined  with  water  obtained  from  the 
roots,  forms  starch,  sugar,  gum.  and  other  plant-foods. 

This  process  of  food-making  is  called  assimilation  and  can 
be  carried  on  only  in  the  green  parts  of  the  plant,  and  in 
these  only  when  exposed  to  light  and  air.  Hence,  foliage, 
air,  and  light  at  the  top  are  essential  prerequisites  for  tree- 
growth,  and,  other  conditions  being  favorable,  the  greater 
quantity  and  better  development  of  foliage  and  the  more 
light  this  foliage  has  at  its  disposal  for  its  work  the  more 
vigorously  will  the  tree  grow. 

In  general,  therefore,  the  growth  of  wood  may  be  reduced 
either  by  the  removal  of  foliage,  which  reduces  the  working 
surface,  or  by  shading,  which  somewhat  checks  the  activity 
of  the  foliage  by  hindering  light  action. 

Transpiration.  The  flow  of  sap  in  trees  is  not  well 
understood.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  sap- 
wood  transmits  the  water  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves, 
where  a  part  enters  into  the  assimilated  sap  and  goes  to 
build  up  the  plant,  and  the  remainder,  which  is  by  far  the 
greater  part,  passes  off  as  vapor.  The  amount  thus  trans- 
pired varies  greatly  with  the  species,  age  of  the  tree,  amount 


THE   TREE.  9 

of  foliage  at  work,  amount  of  light  at  its  disposal,  climatic 
conditions,  and  the  condition  of  tree-growth.  The  amount 
of  water  transpired  is  so  large  in  comparison  to  the  amount 
retained  in  the  tree  that  while  an  acre  of  forest  may  store 
in  its  trees  1,000  pounds  of  carbon,  15  or  20  pounds  of  min- 
eral substances,  and  5,000  pounds  of  water  in  a  year,  it  may 
have  taken  from  the  soil  and  given  off  to  the  air  from 
500,000  to  1,500,000  pounds  of  water,  or  from  one-quarter 
to  one-half  as  much  as  agricultural  crops.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  the  leaves  of  deciduous  trees  transpire  one- 
sixth  to  one-third  as  much  water  as  an  equal  surface  of 
water.  Large  deciduous  trees  undoubtedly  give  off  as 
much  as  a  barrel  of  water  a  day  in  dry  summer  weather. 
Coniferous  trees  transpire  much  less  water  than  most  de- 
ciduous trees,  frequently  not  over  one-sixth  as  much. 

Mineral  Substances  are  taken  up  in  small  quantities  and 
consist  mostly  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  potash.  They  are 
carried  to  the  leaves,  where  they  are  used  (perhaps  also  on 
their  passage  through  the  tree),  with  a  part  of  the  water, 
in  food  preparation.  The  main  part  of  the  mineral  sub- 
stances taken  up  remains  as  the  water  transpires  in  the 
leaves  and  young  twigs  and  is  returned  to  the  soil  when  the 
leaves  are  shed  and  when  the  tree  is  cut  and  the  brush  left 
to  decompose  and  make  humus. 

The  Soil  of  Woodlands  is  Improved  from  year  to  year  if 
the  leaves  and  litter  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground 
and  fire  is  kept  out,  since  the  mineral  matters  taken 
up  by  the  tree  are  largely  returned  to  the  soil  in  a 
more  soluble  form  and  the  amount  of  humus  is  increased. 
For  this  reason  there  is  little  need  of  alternating  woodland 
crops. 

Almost  any  soil  can  furnish  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
mineral  substances  for  the  production  of  a  crop  of  trees, 
provided  it  is  moist  and  the  leaf  mould  is  not  removed. 
Good  soils  will  continue  to  furnish  mineral  matter  in  suffi- 


10  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

cient  quantity,  even  if  a  portion  of  the  leaf  mould  is  carried 
away.  If,  however,  this  removal  is  continued  annually 
for  a  long  period,  any  but  exceedingly  fertile  soils  aie 
likely  to  become  exhausted,  just  as  land  on  which  field 
crops  are  grown  cannot  produce  crops  forever  without 
manuring. 

The  Yearly  Round  of  Life  in  a  Tree.  In  the  spring  the 
tree  starts  into  growth  and  feeds  on  the  plant-food  stored 
up  the  preceding  year;  the  leaves  unfold  and  commence 
furnishing  plant-food.  These  two  sources  of  food  push  the 
growth  along  very  rapidly  in  the  spring  and  early  summer. 
By  the  first  of  July  the  food  stored  up  the  previous  season  is 
exhausted  in  many  trees,  and  growth  is  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  food  furnished  by  the  leaves.  The  growth  at  this 
time  is  generally  much  slower  than  in  the  spring;  and  as 
the  capacity  of  the  tree  for  building  up  plant-food  increases, 
it  commences  to  store  up  starch,  sugar,  and  other  foods  in  its 
cells  with  which  to  start  growth  the  following  spring,  and 
the  cell-walls  become  thicker  and  firmer.  This  maturing 
of  the  tree  is  termed  the  ripening  of  the  wood,  and  when 
completed  the  tree  is  ready  for  winter.  The  hardiest 
trees  generally  ripen  their  wood  early  in  the  autumn 
and  then  cease  growing,  although  probably  some  food  is 
being  stored  up  so  long  as  the  leaves  remain  green  on  the 
trees. 

The  amount  of  growth  in  a  tree  is  shown  in  the  amount 
of  wood  formed.  A  cross-section  of  a  trunk  or  branch  will 
show  the  growth  each  year  by  the  thickness  of  the  yearly 
rings.  On  close  examination  of  the  cro-:s-section  of  an  oak 
and  many  other  trees  it  will  be  noticed  that  each  ring  is 
made  up  of  two  very  distinct  kinds  of  tissue  and  that  one 
portion  is  very  loose  and  open  and  the  other  very  close 
and  hard.  The  loose  and  open  wood  was  formed  during 
the  rapid  growth  of  spring  and  early  summer  and  is  termed 
spring  wood.  The  dense,  firm  wood  was  formed  during 


THE   TEEE.  11 

the  summer  when  the  growth  was  slow.  It  is  termed 
summer  wood.  (See  page  161.) 

Rest  Period  of  Plants.  With  very  few  exceptions  all 
plants  require  an  occasional  rest  period  for  their  best  devel- 
opment. Some  species  get  it  naturally  by  being  dried  and 
others  by  being  frozen.  And  even  when  plants  are  kept 
under  growing  conditions  the  year  round  they  have  periods 
of  rest  and  of  excitement.  During  the  rest  period  the 
plants  undergo  very  few  changes,  and  yet  there  is  undoubt- 
edly some  growth  during  mild  weather  in  winter,  and,  as 
evaporation  must  be  going  on  most  of  the  time  from  twigs 
and  buds,  water  must  be  supplied  from  the  roots. 

The  Amount  of  Water  Lost  by  Trees  in  Winter.  After 
many  careful  experiments,  A.  L.  Knisely,  M.S.,  concludes 
that  a  Soft  Maple  standing  30  or  35  feet  high  with  a  trunk 
15  to  18  inches  in  diameter  near  the  ground,  exposing  from 
750  to  800  square  feet  of  bark  surface,  may  lose  daily  by 
evaporation  from  6  to  7  pounds  of  water  when  dormant . 
An  Apple-tree  30  years  old  and  15  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  exposing  from  800  to  1,000  square  feet  of  bark  surface, 
may  lose  daily  while  dormant  from  10  to  13  pounds  of 
water.  These  figures  are  from  results  obtained  during 
winter  weather  in  New  York,  where  the  relative  humidity 
of  the  air  is  higher  than  in  Minnesota,  which  would  lessen 
evaporation.  It  is  probable  that  during  the  winter  evapo- 
ration is  much  more  rapid  in  Minnesota  and  the  Dakota^ 
than  it  is  in  New  York,  which  will  partly,  at  least,  account 
for  so  much  loss  in  those  sections  by  winter  ki  ling. 

We  know  that  after  a  prolonged  period  of  severely  cold 
weather  the  twigs  of  Soft  Maple,  Apple,  and  some  other 
trees,  have  a  decidedly  shrivelled  appearance  which  disap- 
pears after  a  few  days  of  mild  weather.  Soft-Maple  trees 
standing  on  dry  land  will  sometimes  in  the  spring  appear  to 
have  been  dried  out  and  to  have  become  partly  or  entirely 
dead.  It  is  probable  that  during  the  coldest  weather  very 


.12  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

little,  if  any,  moisture  can  be  supplied  from  the  roots, 
which  may  account  for  this  shrivelled  condition. 

Second  Growth.  Sometimes  warm,  moist  weather  in  late 
autumn  will  cause  trees  to  start  a  strong  second  growth  in 
October,  which  draws  on  the  stored  plant-food  and  perhaps 
exhausts  it,  and  winter  sets  in  before  the  tissues  have  again 
become  hard  and  stored  with  food.  In  such  cases  trees  are 
liable  to  injury.  No  characteristic  of  hardiness  is  more 
important  in  plants  than  that  of  early  maturity  of  wood. 

One  part  of  the  tree  may  start  into  growth  without 
regard  to  the  conditions  of  the  other  parts.  For  instance, 
a  branch  brought  into  a  warm  room  in  winter,  without 
severing  it  from  the  tree,  will  grow  for  some  time.  Sun 
scald  is  probably  due  to  the  bark  on  the  side  most  exposed 
to  the  sun  starting  into  growth  very  early,  after  which  a 
sudden  freeze  destroys  the  young  cellular  tissue. 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE   FOREST. 

Arboriculture  is  a  term  that  is  applied  to  the  growing  of 
trees  for  any  purpose  whatsoever,  whether  singly  or  in 
groups. 

Sylviculture  is  simply  a  synonym  of  the  term  forestry 
and  is  applied  to  the  growing  of  trees  in  groups  or  forests. 

Forest  is  a  Term  variously  applied  in  this  country.  As 
here  used,  it  applies  to  all  collections  of  trees  except  such 
as  are  grown  for  fruit.  It  may,  then,  apply  to  a  piece  of  land 
on  which  seedlings  have  only  recently  been  planted,  or  to 
what  is  termed  brush  plan,  or  to  land  heavily  stocked  with 
trees. 

TREE-GROWTH   AFFECTED   BY  LIGHT  CONDITIONS. 

So  Important  is  Sunlight  to  the  Growth  of  Trees  that  it 
is  sometimes  said  to  be  the  purpose  of  trees  to  convert 
sunlight  into  wood.  Practically  all  trees  make  their  most 
rapid  growth  in  full  sunlight.  There  is,  however,  quite  a 
difference  in  the  power  of  various  trees  to  get  along  with 
small  amounts  of  direct  sunlight.  It  is  the  object  of  good 
forestry  to  grow  as  much  good  timber  as  possible  upon  the 
land,  just  as  good  agriculture  consists  in  growing  the  largest 
amount  of  farm  crops  upon  the  land.  An  acre  of  land  cov- 
ered with  trees  of  the  same  species,  it  is  estimated,  will  lay 
on  the  same  amount  of  woody  fibre  whether  the  stems  are 
large  or  small,  the  amount  of  wood  formed  each  year  being 
in  direct  ratio  to  the  amount  of  foliage  covering  the  land 
that  is  in  good  active  condition. 

13 


14  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 

It  is  known  that  some  trees  will  do  very  well  in  the  shade 
of  other  trees.  This  gives  a  chance  to  grow  trees  in  a  sort 
of  two-storied  fashion,  having  the  land  nearly  covered  with 
the  foliage  of  one  set  of  trees  which  require  the  full  exposure 
to  sunlight,  and  underneath,  the  land  covered  with  the 
foliage  of  trees  which  will  endure  the  shade  of  those  above 
them,  just  as  pumpkins  can  be  grown  under  corn.  On 
account  of  this  peculiarity  of  trees,  foresters  have  divided 
them  into  two  classes,  one  of  which  is  called  light-de mar  cl- 
ing and  the  other  shade-enduring.  The  words  tolerant  and 
intolerant  are  also  used  as  distinguishing  the  peculiarity  of 
trees  in  this  respect,  and  they  are  perhaps  better  terms. 
Trees  that  are  known  as  tolerant  generally  have  a  thicker 
mass  of  foliage  than  those  that  are  intolerant  cf  shade. 
This  simply  means  that  their  lower  leaves  can  withstand 
the  shade  of  their  upper  leaves.  While  it  is  not  an  absolute 
rule  that  tolerant  species  have  a  thick  mass  of  foliage  and 
intolerant  trees  open  foliage,  yet  it  is  so  generally  true  that 
where  this  characteristic  of  a  tree  is  known  it  serves  as  a 
very  reliable  indication.  Most  trees  are  much  more  tolerant 
of  shade  when  young  than  when  old.  Among  our  tolerant 
trees  may  be  mentioned  the  Spruce,  Oak,  Balsam,  White 
Cedar,  Red  Cedar,  Hornbeam,  and  Hard  Maple.  Among 
our  intolerant  species  are  Poplars,  Cottonwood,  Willows, 
Soft  Maple,  and  Birch.  Of  our  native  pines,  the  White  Pine 
is  much  more  tolerant  than  either  the  Jack  or  the  Norway 
Pine,  which  are  quite  intolerant  of  shade  and  soon  succumb 
if  they  are  protected  from  the  full  sunlight. 

Trees  Protect  One  Another  and  are  Mutually  Helpful, 
and  many  trees  that  are  quite  hardy  on  the  limits  of  their 
growth  when  grown  in  groups,  will  fail  if  grown  singly,  as 
for  instance  the  Hard  Maple  in  exposed  parts  of  Minnesota. 
Trees  also  interfere  with  one  another  and  struggle  for  light 
and  soil  conditions,  and  the  weaker  trees  are  destroyed.  So 
true  is  this  that  where  the  land  is  thickly  seeded  with  even. 


THE   FOREST.  15 

aged  trees,  they  may  all  become  weak  and  sickly  because  of 
hindering  one  another.  On  the  other  hand,  this  crowding 
of  trees  forces  them  to  take  on  an  upward  growth  and  kills 
out  the  lower  branches.  Trees  growing  under  such  condi- 
tions make  long  timber  free  from  knots,  which  is  therefore 
most  valuable. 

SOIL   CONDITIONS. 

Water  Supply.  Water  is  the  most  important  element  in 
soils  for  tree-growth,  and  the  greatest  attention  must  be 
given  to  its  conservation  and  distribution  through  the  soil. 
Trees  do  not  grow  to  best  advantage  in  very  wet  or  in  very 
dry  soil,  although  some  can  live  and  almost  thrive  under 
such  unfavorable  conditions.  There  is  very  little  land, 
except  in  the  arid  region,  but  that  will  support  some  form 
of  tree-growth.  The  soil  best  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  trees 
is  one  that  is  moderately  but  evenly  moist,  porous,  deep, 
and  well  drained;  yet  with  a  subsoil  compact  enough  to 
transmit  the  subsoil  water  from  below  upwards  without  its 
being  so  solid  that  it  cannot  be  easily  penetrated  by  the 
roots.  It  does  not  matter  about  its  being  stony  if  it  has 
these  qualities.  On  land  that  is  very  wet,  as  the  muskegs 
of  Northern  Minnesota,  which  are  covered  with  Tamarack 
and  Spruce,  the  trees  never  get  to  be  of  large  size.  In  the 
case  of  one  Spruce  grown  on  such  land,  73  years  was  occu- 
pied in  growing  a  tree  1|  inches  in  diameter,  and  a  Tama- 
rack under  similar  conditions  formed  a  diameter  of  only 
lyV  inches  in  48  years.  We  also  find  that  growth  is 
extremely  slow  on  very  dry  land.  On  very  open  porous 
land  the  water  sinks  quickly  out  of  reach  of  the  roots,  and 
where  the  soil  is  too  compact  it  cannot  be  penetrated  by 
the  water  or  by  the  roots,  so  that  on  such  soils  trees  gener- 
ally suffer  for  moisture  a  part  of  the  year. 

Relation  Between  Trees  and  Soils.  The  growth  of  trees 
and  the  kinds  growing  on  land  are  good  though  not  infalli- 


16  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN"    FORESTRY. 

ble  indexes  to  the  value  of  the  soil  for  agricultural  purposes. 
For  instance,  land  on  which  Black  Walnut,  Hard  Maple, 
Hackberry,  or  Hickory  grow  to  large  size  is  of  good  quality, 
for  grasses,  grains,  and  other  agricultural  crops,  while  Black 
Oak  is  generally  abundant  on  dry,  gravelly  ridges  and 
sandy  soil.  Where  White  Pine  in  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin 
is  the  prevailing  tree,  the  land  is  generally  of  good  quality. 
Norway  Pine  will  endure  more  drought  than  the  White  Pine, 
outgrows  it,  and  becomes  the  prevailing  tree  on  drier  land 
there,  while  the  Jack  Pine  is  the  most  abundant  on  the  very 
dry  sandy  lands.  In  the  more  humid  climate  of  the  Eastern 
States,  the  White  Pine  grows  on  very  sandy  soils. 

Mechanical  Condition  of  Land  in  Forests.  The  agri- 
culturist aims  to  keep  the  soil  porous,  yet  moderately  com- 
pact, that  the  roots  may  penetrate  it  easily  and  the  subsoil 
waters  may  be  readily  transmitted  upwards  to  the  roots  of 
plants.  He  aims  to  prevent  the  soil  from  becoming  too 
compact  and  the  loss  of  water  from  evaporation  by  cul- 
tivating the  surface  soil,  and  to  keep  out  standing  water 
by  drainage.  The  forest-grower  cannot  rely  upon  such 
methods,  because  they  are  too  expensive  or  entirely  imprac- 
ticable. He  may  indeed  plough  for  his  first  planting  and 
cultivate  the  young  trees,  but  after  a  few  years  cultivation 
will  become  impossible  and  the  effects  of  the  first  prepara- 
tion will  be  lost.  He  must  therefore  attain  his  object  in 
another  way,  that  is,  by  mulching  the  soil.  The  shading 
is  done  at  first  by  planting  very  closely,  so  that  the  ground 
may  be  protected  as  soon  as  possible  from  sun  and  wind. 
The  shade  should  be  maintained  well  throughout  the  life  of 
the  tree,  even  if  more  planting  is  necesesary  to  accomplish 
it,  and  if  in  later  life  the  trees  get  thin  in  the  tops  or  die 
out,  it  may  become  necessary  to  plant  underbrush  to  pro- 
tect the  land. 

Undergrowth  in  Forests  may  be  rather  injurious  in  pre- 
venting the  proper  development  of  young  trees,  but  it  is 


THE  FOREST.  17 

generally  very  beneficial  in  retarding  evaporation  from  the 
surface  soil,  in  retaining  the  snow  in  the  spring,  and  in  kill- 
ing out  grass  and  weeds. 

Forest  Floor  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  the  mulch  on  the 
ground  in  forests.  This  is  made  up  of  the  fallen  twigs  and 
leaves  which  remain  on  the  ground,  where  they  slowly 
decay  and  form  a  cover  of  rich  mould  or  humus.  This 
protective  covering  serves  a  most  useful  purpose;  it  per- 
mits the  rain  and  snow  waters  to  penetrate  the  soil  without 
at  the  same  time  making  it  too  compact,  thus  keeping  the 
soil  granular  so  that  the  air  can  enter,  and  in  the  best  con- 
dition for  conducting  water,  while  at  the  same  time  it  pre- 
vents washing  away  of  the  land  and  too  rapid  or  excessive 
evaporation  from  the  surface;  the  humus  is  also  an  active 
agent  in  aiding  decomposition  of  the  mineral  substances  in 
the  soil. 

Subsoil.  Tree-growth  is  less  dependent  on  the  condition 
of  the  surface  soil  and  more  dependent  on  the  subsoil  than 
is  the  growth  of  agricultural  crops.  For  instance,  in  the 
case  of  drifting  sand  overlying  a  moist  subsoil,  it  has  been 
found  that  where  pains  are  taken  to  get  the  young  trees 
started  they  will  often  do  well  although  such  land  is  poorly 
adapted  to  agricultural  crops.  There  are  many  acres  of 
land  in  our  Northern  States  that  have  such  conditions,  and 
they  should  seldom  be  entirely  cleared  of  trees. 

Washing  of  Soils.  The  soils  most  likely  to  wash  badly 
are  those  that  are  fine-grained  without  much  adhesive 
power,  such  as  fine  sand  and  some  kinds  of  clays.  When, 
however,  such  soils  have  a  forest  growth  on  them,  they  are 
protected  from  washing  by  the  forest  floor,  tree  roots,  and 
the  humus  in  the  soil.  Soil  which  contains  large  quantities 
of  humus  does  not  wash  much,  since  the  particles  of  or- 
ganic matter  bind  it  together;  thus  we  find  that  newly 
cleared  timber  land  which  contains  large  amounts  of  humus 
may  not  wash  much  for  a  number  of  years  after  the  clear- 


18    _  PRINCIPLES   OF    AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

ing,  and  then  commence  to  wash  very  badly.  The  washing 
away,  then,  is  due  to  the  humus  having  become  used  up 
and  there  being  nothing  left  to  bind  the  soil  particles  to- 
gether. In  such  cases  the  application  of  organic  matter 
will  help  very  materially.  For  this  purpose  manure,  straw, 
or  other  material  may  be  applied,  or  crops  like  clover  and 
the  grasses,  which  leave  considerable  organic  matter,  may 
be  grown  on  the  land.  Crops  that  leave  very  little  humus 
in  the  ground,  such  as  nursery  stock,  which  is  dug  out  by 
the  roots,  are  most  harmful  in  exhausting  the  humus  in  the 
soil,  and  land  used  for  this  purpose  needs  heavy  manuring 
with  stable  manure  and  an  occasional  seeding  down  to 
grass  or  clover. 

Alkali  Soils.  In  the  prairie  portions  and  occasionally 
elsewhere  we  have  a  kind  of  soil  in  which  there  is  a  super- 
abundance of  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda.  This  kind 
of  soil  seldom  extends  over  large  areas  and  generally 
occurs  in  places  lower  than  the  surrounding  land.  In  some 
places  the  alkali  occurs  in  such  abundance  as  to  coat  the 
surface  of  the  soil  with  a  white  crust.  On  such  land  very 
few  agricultural  crops  or  trees  grow  well.  The  leaves  of 
the  trees  growing  there  generally  take  on  a  yellowish  color 
and  the  wood  does  not  mature  well  in  the  autumn.  Such 
land  should  be  drained  so  that  the  surface  water  at  least 
can  run  off.  In  this  way  the  alkali  can  generally  be 
washed  out  in  a  few  years.  It  is  seldom  advisable  to  plant 
trees  on  these  places,  but  if  this  seems  desirable,  as  is  some- 
times the  case  on  prairies,  the  best  trees  to  plant  are  proba- 
bly the  Cottonwood  and  White  Willow. 

EFFECT   OF   SLOPE   AND    ASPECT    OX    TREE-GROWTH. 

The  slope  of  the  land  affords  drainage  and  so  affects  the 
growth  of  trees,  but  trees  will  grow  on  any  slope,  even  on 
precipices,  if  they  can  find  room  for  their  roots  and  the  soil 
is  somewhat  moist.  The  direction  of  the  slope  usually 


THE   FOBEST.  19 

has  a  very  marked  effect  on  the  growth  of  vegetation. 
This  is  especially  the  case  where  high  ranges  of  hills  and 
other  local  conditions  modify  the  climate. 

A  Northern  Slope  receives  no  full  sunlight;  the  sun's  rays 
fall  obliquely  in  the  morning  or  towcrd  evening,  according 
to  the  angle  of  elevation.  The  winds  it  receives  in  winter 
are  colder  than  those  received  by  the  southern  slope,  but 
the  few  winds  which  strike  it  during  the  growing  season  are 
not  strong,  hot,  or  very  dry.  As  the  vegetation  is  a  little 
delayed  on  a  northern  slope,  there  is  less  danger  from  late 
spring  frosts  than  on  a  sunnier  aspect,  and  as  the  snow 
melts  slowly,  there  is  a  better  chance  for  its  waters  to  soak 
into  the  ground.  In  consequence  of  these  facts  trees  are  less 
liable  to  suffer  from  drought  on  the  same  kind  of  land  with 
a  northern  than  with  a  southern  exposure.  The  trees  keep  a 
more  regular  form  and  growth  is  more  uniform  and  certain. 
It  will  generally  be  found  that  where  timber  is  cut  off  from 
a  northern  slope  growth  renews  itself  very  quickly,  for  tree 
seeds  are  most  likely  to  grow  under  the  conditions  found 
there. 

An  Eastern  Slope  receives  the  sun  in  the  cool  morning 
hours  when  the  temperature  and  light  are  moderate.  It  is 
not  exposed  to  hot,  dry  winds  nor  to  the  intense  heat  of 
the  sun.  The  soil  retains  its  moisture  fairly  well  and  trees 
make  a  good  growth.  For  trees  it  ranks  next  in  value  to 
a  northern  slope. 

A  Southern  Slope  receives  the  most  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  and  the  full  force  of  hot,  dry  winds  and  beating  rains 
during  the  growing  season.  Consequently  vegetation  is 
more  liable  to  injury  by  late  spring  frosts,  because  of 
starting  earlier  in  the  spring,  than  in  any  other  location. 
The  soil  is  most  liable  to  erosion  from  beating  summer  rains 
and  dries  up  most  quickly  after  the  spring  rains.  The  trees 
grow  irregular  in  form,  the  seeds  seldom  start  well  on 
southern  or  western  slopes,  and  when  once  cleared,  tree- 


20  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

growth  is  often  difficult  to  renew.  As  proof  of  the  im- 
portance of  these  conditions  as  affecting  tree-growth  we 
have  the  commonly  observed  fact  that  the  south  and  west 
sides  of  steep  hills  and  mountains  are  more  likely  to  be 
bare  than  any  others.  This  can  be  very  plainly  seen  on  the 
bluffs  along  the  Mississippi  River  in  Minnesota  and  Iowa. 
A  Western  Slope  receives  the  sun's  rays  obliquely,  but  in 
the  warmest  part  of  the  day  gets  the  full  force  of  the  hot 
dry  southwest  winds  which  are  so  common  in  many  parts 
of  this  country.  The  effect  of  such  an  exposure  on  growth 
is  about  the  same  as  the  southern  slope.  On  the  mountain 
ranges  of  the  Pacific  slopes  of  North  America,  the  western 
exposures  receive  the  most  rainfall  and  consequently  have 
the  heaviest  tree-growth. 


CHAPTER  III. 

FOREST    INFLUENCES. 

UPON  careful  observation  it  will  be  found  that  a  single 
large  spreading  tree  growing  in  an  open  field  appreciably 
affects  climatic  and  soil  conditions  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  During  the  day  the  ground  under  a  tree  is  protected 
from  the  sun's  rays  and  is  therefore  cooler  than  soil  not 
protected.     As  a  result  of  this  protection,  the  air  under 
the  tree  is  cooler  than  the  air  in  the  open,  and,  as  it  is  con- 
stantly in  circulation,  tends  to  cool  the  air  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  tree  on  sunny  days. 

2.  At  night  a  tree  retards  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
ground  under  it.     This  tends  to  equalize  the  temperature 
of  not  only  the  soil  and  air  under  the  tree,  but  that  in  the 
near  vicinity.     Therefore,  though  a  tree  may  reduce  the 
temperature  of  the  soil  and  air  on  sunny  days  or  during  a 
short  period  of  warm  weather,  it  may,  on  the  other  hand, 
increase  the  temperature  at  night  or  during  a  short  period 
of  cool  weather.     For  example  it  may  be    noticed  that 
vegetables  growing  near  trees  are  frequently  uninjured  by 
autumn  frosts  which  destroy  those  growing  in  the  open. 

3.  A  tree  aids  in  retaining  water  in  the  surface  soil  to  the 
leeward  by  breaking  the  force  of  the  wind,  and  thus  retard- 
ing evaporation,  for  it  is  known  that  evaporation  increases 
with  the  rapidity  of  the  air-currents.  It  retains  the  water  in 
the  surface  soil  under  the  tree  by  shading  the  soil  and  thus 
retarding  evaporation.     The  large  amount  of  water  which" 
is  transpired  by  a  tree  is  largely  drawn  from  the  subsoil, 

21 


22  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

and  this  increases  the  humidity  of  the  surrounding  air 
without  drawing  on  the  water  of  the  surface  soil.  But 
some  kinds  of  trees  take  up  so  much  of  the  water  from  the 
soil  as  to  preclude  the  growing  of  crops  in  such  places  near 
them. 

4.  The  leaves  that  fall  to  the  ground  form  a  mulch  which 
prevents  the  drying  out  of  the  soil.     They  check  the  flow 
of  water  over  the  land,  thus  preventing  the  washing  away 
or  compacting  of  the  soil  by  heavy  rains,  and  giving  the 
water  a  better  chance  to  soak  into  the  ground. 

5.  A  tree   protects   from   the   destructive   force  of  severe 
winds.    A  single  tree  or  group  of  trees  may  seem  to  have 
little  effect  on  tornadoes,  but  large  groups  of  trees  may 
possibly  prevent  their  formation  or  greatly  lessen  their 
violence.     Protection  from  severe  winds  may  greatly  affect 
the  growing  of  plants,  since,  on  account  of  the  winds,  many 
plants  that  may  be  successfully  grown  when  protected  by 
shelter-belts  cannot  be  grown  on  the  open  prairie.    This  pro- 
tection, when  present,  serves  to  lessen  the  fuel  necessary  to 
warm  dwelling-houses  and  also  lessens  the  food  eaten  by 
animals.     It  also  keeps  the  surface  soil  in  fields  from  being 
blown  away. 

In  these  five  principal  ways  a  single  tree  affects  the  con- 
ditions of  climate  and  soil  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  To  be 
sure,  some  of  them  are  not  so  very  evident  where  a  single 
tree  grows  in  an  open  field,  but  where  trees  are  growing  in 
groups  or  on  large  tracts  of  land  all  of  these  factors  are 
important  in  modifying  climate  and  soil  conditions,  and 
will  be  referred  to  at  greater  length. 

INFLUENCE   OF   FORESTS    ON   WATER  SUPPLIES. 

It  is  very  evident  that  the  proper  disposition  of  water 
upon  the  land  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  growing  of 
crops,  and  it  is  equally  evident  that  nature's  changeful  and 
wasteful  ways  of  supplying  wrater  to  crops  are  not  the  best 


FOREST    INFLUENCES.  23 

ways  of  so  doing,  for  we  know  that  not  only  in  the  arid 
regions,  but  in  general  wherever  irrigation  is  used,  crops 
are  produced  in  greatest  abundance  and  certainty.  This 
once  recognized,  then  the  proper  distribution  of  the  availa- 
ble water  supplies  becomes  a  question  of  immediate  inter- 
est. Human  effort  can,  to  a  limited  extent,  direct  the  laws 
of  nature  that  influence  climate  and  soil  conditions,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  that  we  have  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  forces  that  are  at  work  in  nature  in  order  that  we  may 
know  where  we  may  or  may  not  expect  to  be  successful  in 
directing  them.  In  order  that  we  may  better  understand 
this  subject,  I  quote  the  following  extract  on  forest  influ- 
ences from  the  report  of  the  Forestry  Division  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  for  1880,  with  a  few  changes  in 
the  nature  of  abbreviations: 

"The  water  capital  of  the  earth  may  be  regarded  as  con- 
sisting of  two  parts,  the  fixed  capital  and  the  circulating 
capital.  The  first  is  represented,  not  only  in  the  waters 
on  the  earth,  but  also  by  that  amount  of  water  which  re- 
mains suspended  in  the  atmosphere,  being  part  of  the 
original  atmospheric  water-masses  which,  after  the  rest 
had  fallen  to  the  cooled  earth,  remained  in  suspension  and 
is  never  precipitated. 

"The  circulating  water  capital  is  that  part  which  is  evap- 
orated from  water  surfaces,  from  the  soil,  from  vegetation, 
and  which,  after  having  temporarily  been  held  by  the 
atmosphere  in  quantities  locally  varying  according  to  the 
variations  in  temperature,  is  returned  again  to  the  earth  by 
precipitation  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  and  dew.  There  it 
is  evaporated  again,  either  immediately  or  after  having 
percolated  through  the  soil  and  been  retained  for  a  shorter 
or  longer  time  before  being  returned  to  the  surface,  or.  with- 
out such  percolation,  it  runs  through  open  channels  to  the 
rivers  and  seas,  continually  returning  in  part  into  the  atmos- 
phere by  evaporation.  Practically,  then,  the.  total  amount 


24  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

cf  water  capital  remains  constant;  only  one  part  of  it — the 
circulating  capital — changes,  in  varying  quantities,  its  loca- 
tion, and  is  of  interest  to  us  more  with  reference  to  its  local 
distribution  and  the  channels  by  which  it  becomes  available 
for  human  use  and  vegetation  than  with  reference  to  its 
practically  unchanged  total  quantity. 

"As  to  the  amount  of  this  circulating  water  capital  we 
have  no  knowledge;  hardly  an  approximate  estimate  of  the 
amount  circulating  in  any  given  locality  is  possible  with  our 
present  means  of  measurement;  for  it  appears  that  so 
unevenly  is  the  precipitation  distributed  that  two  rain 
gauges  almost  side  by  side  will  indicate  varying  amounts, 
and  much  of  the  moisture  which  is  condensed  and  precipi- 
tated in  dews  escapes  our  observation,  or  at  least  our 
measurements  entirely.  Thus  it  occurs  that  while  the 
amount  of  water  calculated  to  be  discharged  annually  by 
the  river  Rhone  into  the  sea  appears  to  correspond  to  a 
rainfall  of  44  inches,  the  records  give  only  a  precipitation 
over  its  watershed  of  27.6  inches. 

"  We  must  therefore  enter  into  our  discussions  acknowl- 
edging ignorance  of  one  of  the  most  important  factors,  at 
least  as  to  its  numerical  or  quantitive  value. 

"The  distribution  of  the  circulating  water  capital  is  influ- 
enced by  various  agencies.  The  main  factor  which  sets 
the  capital  afloat  is  the  sun,  which,  by  its  heat,  and  the  air- 
currents  caused  by  it,  and  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  pro- 
duces the  evaporation  which  fills  the  atmosphere  with 
vapor.  Anything,  therefore,  that  influences  the  intensity 
/)f  insolation,  the  action  of  the  sun,  or  obstructs  the  passage 
of  winds,  must  influence  the  local  distribution  of  the  water 
capital.  The  great  cosmic  influences  which  produce  the 
variability  of  all  climatic  conditions,  and  therefore  also 
of  the  circulating  water  capital,  are  the  position  of  the 
earth's  axis  to  the  sun,  by  which  the  angle  and  therefore  the 
heat  value  of  the  sun's  rays  vary  in  different  parts  of  the 


FOKEST   INFLUENCES.  25 

earth  and  at  different  times  of  the  year;  the  distribution 
of  land  and  water  areas,  which  produces  a  difference  of  in- 
solation because  the  water  has  more  heat  capacity  than  the 
land,  and  which  also  influences  the  direction  of  air-  and  sea- 
currerits ;  the  configuration  of  the  earth,  by  which  the  den- 
sity of  the  atmosphere  is  made  unequal,  and  in  consequence 
of  which  differences  of  insolation  and  of  air  temperature  are 
induced.  Thus  we  have  not  only  climatic  zones,  but  also 
continental  climates  and  mountain  climates  in  opposition 
to  coast  climates  and  plain  or  valley  climates. 

"While  this  classification  of  cosmic  climates  satisfies  the 
climatologist,  there  are  many  local  climates  to  be  found 
within  the  range  of  the  cosmic,  and  the  local  climatic  condi- 
tions are  those  which  affect  human  life  and  human  occupa- 
tions most  sensibly. 

"The  same  causes,  different  only  in  degree,  which  modify 
the  cosmic  climates,  making  a  classification  of  the  same 
possible,  effect  further  modifications  and  give  rise  to  local 
climates ;  these  causes  are  different  in  the  degree  of  insola- 
tion, obstruction  to  air-currents,  presence  of  water  surfaces, 
or  moisture-laden  air  strata. 

"Among  the  factors  which  thus  modify  the  cosmic  climate 
and  help  to  produce  a  local  climate  differing  from  other 
local  climates,  the  soil  cover,  and  especially  the  presence  of 
forest  areas,  is  claimed  as  one  that,  under  certain  conditions, 
is  potent:  and  this  factor,  being  under  the  control  of  human 
agency  more  than  any  other  possible  modifier  of  climate, 
must  therefore  be  of  greatest  interest  to  us.  It  is  clear, 
from  what  has  been  stated  so  far,  that  the  influences  of  the 
forest,  if  any,  will  be  due  mainly  to  its  action  as  a  cover 
protecting  the  soil  and  air  against  insolation  and  against 
winds.  That  the  nature  of  a  cover,  its  density,  thickness, 
and  its  proper  position  has  everything  to  do  with  the 
amount  of  protection  it  affords,  everybody  will  admit.  A 
mosquito-net  is  a  cover,  so  is  a  linen  sheet  or  a  woollen  blan- 


26  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

ket,  yet  the  protection  they  afford  is  different  in  degree 
and  may  become  practically  none.  It  will  also  be  con- 
ceded that  it  makes  a  great  difference  whether  the  cover  be 
placed  before  or  behind  the  wind.  Just  so  with  the  influ- 
ence of  the  forest;  it  makes  all  the  difference  whether  we 
have  to  do  with  a  deciduous  or  coniferous,  a  dense  or  an 
open,  a  young  low  or  an  old  high  growth,  and  what  position 
it  occupies  with  reference  to  other  climatic  elements,  espe- 
cially to  prevailing  winds  and  water  surfaces.  In  the 
following  discussions,  when  the  word  forest  is  used,  unless 
differently  stated,  a  dense  growth  of  timber  is  meant. 

"The  question  of  forest  influences  on  water  supplies  can 
be  considered  under  three  heads,  namely — influence  upon 
precipitation  or  distribution  of  atmospheric  water;  influ- 
ence upon  conservation  of  available  water  supplies;  influ- 
ence upon  the  distribution  or  'run-off'  of  these  supplies. 

INFLUENCE    UPON    PRECIPITATION. 

"Whether  forest  areas  are  or  are  not  capable  of  appre- 
ciably increasing  precipitation  within  their  limits  or  on 
neighboring  ground  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute,  and  the 
complexity  of  the  elements  which  must  enter  into  the  dis- 
cussion has,  so  far,  baffled  solution  based  upon  definite  and 
strictly  scientific  observation.  Yet  new  evidence  is  accumu- 
lating all  the  time  which  apparently  shows  that  under  cer- 
tain conditions  forest  areas  obtain  larger  precipitations 
than  open  grounds,  that  is,  they  may  increase  at  least  the 
amount  of  precipitation  over  their  own  immediate  and 
near-lying  areas. 

[In  Minnesota,  popular  opinion  inclines  to  the  belief  that 
there  is  a  close  connection  between  the  existence  of  forests 
and  the  rainfall  of  this  section,  and  that,  with  the  disap- 
pearance of  our  forests,  will  come  a  much  more  rigorous 
climate  and  a  decrease  in  rainfall.  But  the  records  of  the 


FOREST  INFLUENCES.  27 

weather  bureau  do  not  show  that  there  is  any  connection 
between  the  two  or  that  there  has  been  any  apparent 
change  in  the  general  climate  or  amount  of  rainfall  due  to 
the  removal  of  our  forests.  The  flow  of  water  in  most  of 
our  rivers,  and  in  many  cases,  the  flow  of  water  from 
springs,  and  the  height  of  the  water  table  in  the  land,  have 
been  most  seriously  affected  by  the  removal  of  our  forests 
and  should  be  regarded  as  the  ways  by  which  our  water 
supply  is  to  suffer  most  severely  from  deforestation.] 

I 

DISPOSAL    OF   WATER    SUPPLIES. 

"Given  a  certain  amount  of  precipitation  in  rain  or  snow . 
over  a  certain  area,  the  disposal  of  the  water  after  it  has 
fallen,  and  the  influence  of  the  forest  cover  on  its  disposal, 
require  our  attention.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  we 
can  divide  the  elements  which  need  consideration  in  this 
discussion  into  elements  of  dissipation,  elements  of  conser- 
vation, elements  of  distribution. 

"The  difference  in  effect  between  the  first  two  classes  of 
elements  will  give  us  an  idea  of  the  amount  of  available 
water  supply  or  run-off  resulting  from  precipitation,  while 
the  third  class  bears  upon  the  methods  of  distributing  the 
available  water  supply. 

ELEMENTS    OF    DISSIPATION. 

"Elements  of  dissipation  are  those  which  diminish  the 
available  water  supplies ;  they  are  represented  in  the  quan- 
tity of  water  which  is  prevented  by  interception  from 
reaching  the  ground,  in  the  quantity  dissipated  by  evapo- 
ration, in  the  quantity  used  by  plants  in  their  growth,  and 
in  that  used  by  transpiration  during  the  process  of  growing. 

''Interception.  The  amount  of  rainfall  and  snow  which 
is  prevented  by  a  forest  from  reaching  the  soil  varies  con- 
siderably according  to  the  nature  of  the  precipitation  and 


28  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

to  the  kind  of  trees  which  form  the  forest,  as  well  as  the 
density  and  age  of  the  growth. 

"A  light  drizzling  rain  of  short  duration  may  be  almost 
entirely  intercepted  by  the  foliage  and  at  once  returned  to 
the  atmosphere  by  evaporation;  if,  however,  the  rain  con- 
tinues, although  fine,  the  water  will  run  off  at  last  from 
the  foliage  and  along  the  trunks. 

"Altogether  for  the  rainfall  conditions  of  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  Switzerland,  where  measurements  have  been  made,  a 
•dense  forest  growth  will  on  the  average  intercept  23  per 
cent,  of  the  precipitation;  but  if  allowance  be  made  for  the 
water  running  down  the  trunks,  this  loss  is  reduced  to  not 
more  than  12  per  cent. 

"The  amount  of  interception  in  the  open  growths  which 
characterize  many  of  our  Western  forest  areas  would  be 
considerably  smaller,  especially  as  the  rains  usually  fall 
with  great  force,  and  much  of  the  precipitation  is  in  the 
form  of  snow.  Although  branches  and  foliage  catch  a 
goodly  amount  of  this,  the  winds  usually  shake  it  down,  and 
consequently  but  very  little  snow  is  lest  to  the  ground  by 
interception  of  the  foliage. 

"There  is  also  a  certain  amount  of  water  intercepted  by 
the  soil  cover  and  held  back  by  the  soil  itself,  which  must 
be  saturated  before  any  of  it  can  run  off  or  drain  away. 
This  amount,  which  is  eventually  dissipated  by  evaporation 
and  transpiration,  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  nature  of 
the  soil  and  its  cover,  especially  upon  their  capacity  to 
absorb  and  retain  .water. 

"The  water  capacity  of  litter  depends  upon  its  nature 
and  of  course  its  thickness  to  a  certain  degree,  but  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  soils. 

"Altogether  an  appreciable  amount  of  the  precipitation 
does  not  run  off  or  drain  through  the  forest  cover,  but  is 
retained  by  it;  yet,  while  this  is  apparently  a  loss,  we  shall 
see  further  on  that  this  moisture  retained  in  the  upper  strata 


FOKEST   INFLUENCES.  29 

fulfils  an  important  office  in  checking  a  much  greater  loss 
due  to  evaporation  and  thus  becomes  an  element  of  con- 
servation." 

Evaporation.  The  loss  by  evaporation  after  the  water 
has  reached  the  ground  depends  in  the  first  place  upon  the 
amount  of  direct  insolation  of  the  soil,  and  hence  its  tem- 
perature, which  again  influences  the  temperature  of  the  air. 
The  nature  of  the  soil  cover,  the  relative  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  atmosphere,  and  the  circulation  of  the  air  are  also 
factors  determining  the  rate  of  evaporation.  The  impor- 
tance of  evaporation  as  an  element  of  dissipation  may  be 
learned  from  the  experiments  of  Prof.  T.  Russell,  Jr.,  of  the 
U.  S.  Signal  Service,  made  in  1888.  We  learn  from  these 
that  the  evaporation  on  the  Western  plains  and  plateaus 
may,  during  the  year;  amount  to  from  50  to  80  inches,  nay, 
in  spots,  100  inches,  while  the  rainfall  (diminishing  in  re- 
verse ratio)  over  this  area  is  from  30  to  12  inches  and  less. 

"Thus,  in  Denver,  where  the  maximum  annual  precipi- 
tation may  reach  20  inches,  the  evaporation  during  one 
year  was  69  inches.  This  deficiency  of  49  inches  naturally 
must  be  supplied  by  waters  coming  from  the  mountains, 
where  the  precipitation  is  large  and  the  evaporation  low. 
(On  Pike's  Peak  alone  there  may  be  45.6  minus  26.8  or  18.8 
inches  to  spare.)" 

Evaporation  from  the  soil  is  dependent  upon  its  cover- 
ing, and  this  is  important,  as  the  soil  in  forests  is  always 
covered  with  dead  branches,  leaves,  etc.  In  some  experi- 
ments which  were  carried  on  in  Germany  during  the 
months  of  July  and  August,  1883,  to  determine  the  amount 
of  evaporation  from  different  soils,  it  was  found  that  from 
1,000  square  centimeters  of  bare  ground,  5,730  grams  of 
water  were  evaporated,  and  that  from  the  same  area  of  simi- 
lar soil  covered  with  two  inches  of  straw,  575  grams  were 
evaporated.  This  shows  that  the  naked  soil  evaporated 
more  than  ten  times  as  much  as  the  covered  soil.  It  is 


30  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

evident,  then,  that  the  soil  covering  has  an  important 
function  in  preventing  evaporation. 

Wind-breaking  Power  of  Forests.  If  the  loss  by  evap- 
oration from  an  open  field  be  compared  with  that  of  a 
forest-covered  ground,  as  a  matter  of  course  it  will  be 
found  to  be  less  in  the  latter  case,  for  the  shade  not  only 
reduces  the  influence  of  the  sun  upon  the  soil,  but  also 
keeps  the  air  under  its  cover  relatively  moister,  therefore 
less  capable  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  soil  by  evapo- 
ration. In  addition,  the  circulation  of  the  air  is  impeded 
between  the  trunks,  and  this  influence  upon  available 
water  supply,  the  wind-breaking  power  of  the  forest, 
must  be  considered  as  among  the  most  important  factors 
of  water  preservation.  Especially  is  this  the  case  en  the 
Western  plains  and  on  those  Western  mountain  ranges 
bearing  only  a  scattered  tree-growth,  and  where,  there- 
fore, the  influence  of  shade  is  but  nominal. 

The  evaporation  under  the  influence  of  the  wind  is 
dependent,  not  only  on  the  temperature  and  dryness  of  the 
same,  but  also  on  its  velocity,  wrhich  being  impeded,  the 
rate  of  evaporation  is  reduced. 

Interesting  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
the  changes  in  the  rate  of  evaporation  effected  by  the 
velocity  of  the  wind  were  made  by  Prof.  T.  Russell,  Jr., 
of  the  Signal  Service,  in  1887.  The  result  of  these  experi- 
ments (made  with  Piche's  hygrometers  whirled  around  on 
an  arm  28  feet  in  length,  the  results  of  which  were  com- 
pared with  those  from  a  tin  dish  containing  40  cubic  centi- 
meters of  water  exposed  under  shelter)  show  that,  with 
the  temperature  of  the  air  at  84  degrees  and  a  relative  hu- 
midity of  50  per  cent.,  evaporation  at  5  miles  an  hour  was 
2.2  times  greater  than  in  a  calm;  at  10  miles,  3.8;  at  15 
miles,  4.9;  at  20  miles,  5.7;  at  25  miles,  6.1,  and  at  30  miles 
the  wind  would  evaporate  6.3  times  as  much  water  as  a 
calm  atmosphere  of  the  same  temperature  and  humidity. 


FOEEST    INFLUEXCES.  31 

Now,  if  it  is  considered  that  the  average  velocity  of 
the  winds  which  constantly  sweep  the  Western  subarid 
and  arid  plains  is  from  10  to  15  miles,  not  rarely  at- 
taining a  maximum  of  50  and  more  miles,  the  cause  of 
the  aridity  is  not  far  to  seek,  and  the  function  of  the 
timber  belt  or  even  simple  windbreak  can  be  readily 
appreciated. 

Professbr  King  has  found  in  experiments  made  in  "Wis- 
consin that  the  influence  of  even  a  thin  stand  of  woodland 
on  the  rate  of  evaporation  was  considerable.  In  one  ex- 
periment made  in  the  month  of  May,  the  instruments  were 
so  placed  as  to  measure  the  evaporation  to  the  leeward  of  a 
scant  hedgerow  six  to  eight  feet  high,  having  in  it  a  few 
trees  twelve  feet  high  and  many  open  gaps.  It  was  found 
that  at  300  feet  from  the  hedge  the  evaporation  was  30.1 
per  cent,  greater  than  at  20  feet,  and  at  150  feet  it  was  7.2 
per  cent,  less  than  at  300  feet.  The  experiment  was  made 
during  a  moist  north  wind.  It  is  sufficiently  evident,  there- 
fore, that  even  a  thin  hedgerow  exerts  an  influence  that 
can  readily  be  measured.  In  fact  the  presence  or  absence 
of  protecting  belts  of  trees  under  the  conditions  often 
existing  on  our  prairies  may  make  a  difference  between  a 
good  and  a  poor  crop.  All  who  are  acquainted  with  our 
prairie  sections  know  that  great  damage  is  often  done  to 
wheat,  corn,  and  other  crops  by  the  hot  southwest  winds 
which  we  are  likely  to  have  during  the  growing  months. 
In  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  during  the  summer  of  1894, 
immense  tracts  of  corn,  fully  tasselled  out,  were  killed  by 
such  winds.  At  the  same  time  it  was  noticed  that  where 
corn  was  protected  by  trees  or  slopes  of  land,  or  where 
the  humidity  of  the  wind  was  increased  by  passing  over 
bodies  of  water  or  clover  fields,  the  injury  was  greatly 
lessened. 

What  the  possibilities  of  evaporation  from  hot  and  dry 
winds  may  be  can  be  learned  from  statements  regarding 


32  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

the  "Foehn,"  which  is  the  hot  wind  of  Switzerland,  corre- 
sponding to  the  "chinook"  of  our  Western  country. 

The  change  in  temperature  from  the  normal,  experienced 
under  the  influence  of  the  Fcehn,  has  been  noted  as  from 
28  degrees  to  31  degrees  Fahr.,  and  a  reduction  cf  relative 
humidity  of  58  per  cent.  A  Foshn  of  twelve  hours'  dura- 
tion has  been  known  to  "eat  up"  entirely  a  snow  cover 
2^  feet  deep. 

In  Denver  a  chinook  has  been  known  to  induce  a  rise  in 
temperature  of  57  degrees  Fahr.  in  twenty-four  hours  (of 
which  36  degrees  in  five  minutes),  while  the  relative  humid- 
ity sank  from  100  to  21  per  cent. 

The  degree  of  forest  influence  upon  rate  of  evaporation 
by  breaking  the  force  of  winds  is  dependent  upon  the  extent 
and  density  of  the  forest,  and  especially  on  the  height  of  the 
trees;  for  according  to  an  elementary  law  of  mechanics 
the  influence  which  breaks  the  force  of  the  wind  is  felt  at  a 
considerable  elevation  above  the  trees.  This  can  be  practi- 
cally demonstrated  by  passing  along  a  timber  plantation  on 
the  wind-swept  plains.  Even  a  thin  stand  of  young  trees 
not  higher  than  five  feet  will  absolutely  calm  the  air  within 
a  considerable  distance  and  height  beyond  the  shelter. 

Professor  King  found  that  an  oak  grove  12  to  15  feet  high 
exerted  an  appreciable  effect  in  a  gentle  breeze  at  a  distance 
of  300  feet.  In  a  strong  wind  the  effect  of  such  a  grove 
would  be  felt  at  a  much  greater  distance  to  the  leeward. 

At  the  Dominion  Experiment  Station  in  Assiniboia,  Dr. 
Saunders  found  on  one  occasion  that  windbreaks  exerted 
an  appreciable  influence  at  from  50  to  80  feet  to  leeward 
for  every  foot  in  height;  but  this  was  during  a  very  severe 
wind.  It  may  probably  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule 
that  windbreaks  will  exert  an  appreciable  influence  for  at 
least  one  rod  for  every  foot  in  height. 

It  may  not  be  necessary  to  state  that  the  damage  done  to 
crops  by  the  cold,  dry,  winter  winds  is  mainly  due  to  rapid 


FOREST   INFLUENCES.  33 

evaporation,  and  that  plants  are  liable  to  suffer  as  much 
by  winter  drought  as  by  summer  drought. 

This  is  certain :  that  since  summer  and  winter  drought — 
that  is,  rapid  evaporation  due  to  continuous  dry  winds — is 
the  bane  of  the  farmer  on  the  plains,  rationally  disposed 
timber  belts  will  do  much  to  increase  avaliable  water  supply 
by  reducing  evaporation. 

Evaporation,  of  course,  goes  on  much  less  rapidly  within 
than  without  the  forest.  How  great  this  difference  is  we 
have  no  exact  figures  to  tell,  but  it  is  certain  that  it  is 
much  more  than  in  Bavaria,  where  the  following  result 
was  obtained:  In  an  experiment,  which  was  carried  on  to 
determine  the  amount  evaporated  from  April  to  October, 
it  was  found  that  from  a  certain  area  without  the  forest 
40.8  centimeters  were  evaporated,  within  pine  wood  15.9 
centimeters,  and  within  deciduous  woods  6.2  centimeters. 
This  shows  that  the  evaporation  was  six  and  one-half  times 
as  great  in  the  open  field  as  in  deciduous  woods. 

Transpiration.  Another  factor  by  which  forests  dissipate 
water  supplies  and  which  has  been  referred  to  (page  8)  is 
transpiration.  The  quantity  of  water  so  used  is  as  variable 
as  the  amount  of  precipitation,  and  in  fact,  within  certain 
limits,  depends  largely  upon  it;  that  is  to  say,  a  plant 
will  transpire  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  water  which 
is  at  its  disposal.  Transpiration  is  also  dependent  on  the 
stage  of  development  of  the  plant,  on  the  nature  of  its  leaves 
and  amount  of  foliage,  on  temperature,  humidity,  and  cir- 
culation of  the  air,  on  intensity  of  the  sunlight,  and  on 
temperature  and  structure  of  the  soil,  and  on  other  meteor- 
ological conditions.  Rain  and  dew  reduce  transpiration, 
wind  increases  it. 

The  amount  of  transpiration  depends  considerably  upon 
the  thickness  of  the  leaves;  therefore  the  surface  of  the 
foliage  is  not  a  reliable  measure,  but  should  be  compared 
with  the  weight. 


34  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

In  some  European  experiments  carried  on  during  the 
period  of  vegetation,  the  amount  of  water  transpired  by  the 
different  species  per  pound  of  dry  matter  in  the  leaves 
was  as  follows: 

Pounds  of  Water. 

Birch  and  Linden 600  to  700 

Ash 500  to  GOO 

Beech 450  to  500 

Maple 400  to  450 

Oak 200  to  300 

Spruce  and  Scotch  Pine 50  to    70 

Fir 30  to    40 

Black  Pine 30  to    40 

Average,  deciduous  trees 470 

Average,  evergreen  trees 43 

This  shows  that  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  amounts 
of  water  transpired  from  deciduous  trees  and  evergreen 
trees.  In  this  case  the  deciduous  trees  transpired  about 
eleven  times  as  much  as  the  evergreens. 

The  variability  of  transpiration  from  day  to  day  is  of 
wide  range;  a  birch  standing  in  the  open  and  found  to 
have  200.000  leaves  was  calculated  to  have  transpired  on 
hot  summer  days  700  to  900  pounds,  while  on  other  days 
its  exhalations  were  probably  not  more  than  18  to  20 
pounds. 

But  while  trees  transpire  large  amounts  of  water,  our 
agricultural  crops  and  other  low  vegetation  transpire 
much  larger  amounts  to  the  same  areas.  A  small  factoi 
in  the  dissipation  of  water  supplies  is  the  amount  of  water 
that  is  retained  in  the  plant  itself.  As  before  mentioned, 
this  may  amount  annually  to  about  5,000  pounds  per  acre. 
The  water  in  fresh-cut  woods  forms  a  large  part  of  their 
weight.  In  hard  woods,  such  as  Ash,  Oak,  Elm,  and  Birch, 
it  forms  38  to  45  per  cent.,  and  in  soft  woods  45  to  55  per 
cent,  or  more. 


FOREST    INFLUENCES.  35 


ELEMENTS   OF  CONSERVATION   OF  WATER  SUPPLIES. 

In  discussing  the  elements  of  dissipation  as  to  the  degree 
of  their  effect  under  forest  cover  as  compared  with  the  same 
elements  at  work  in  the  open  field,  we  have  seen  that  the 
shade,  the  low  temperature,  the  relative  humidity,  the 
absence  of  strong  air-currents,  and  the  protective  and 
water-holding  capacity  of  the  forest  floor  are  all  factors  in 
the  conservation  of  the  water  supplies.  We  have  also 
seen  that  the  quantity  of  water  lost  by  evaporation,  the 
greatest  source  of  dissipation,  may  be  more  than  six  times 
as  great  in  the  open  as  in  the  forest.  The  only  other  con- 
servative effect  of  forests  on  water  supplies  is  their  effect 
in  retarding  the  melting  of  the  snows.  This  acts  as  an 
important  function  in  the  prevention  of  freshets  by  giving 
che  snow  a  longer  time  to  melt,  so  that  the  snow  water  has 
a  better  chance  to  sink  into  the  ground.  It  is  of  course 
more  evident  in  evergreen  than  in  deciduous  forests.  On 
the  grounds  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  where 
the  woodland  consists  of  a  low  growth  of  Oak,  the  snow  is 
often  retained  in  the  woods  a  week  longer  than  in  the  open. 
This  often  allows  the  snow  water  from  the  fields  to  almost 
wholly  run  off  before  it  has  begun  to  flow  from  the  woods. 
Then  again  the  daily  flow  of  snow  water  from  the  woods  is 
much  shorter  than  from  the  open  fields  during  spring 
weather  when  we  have  warm  days  and  cold  nights,  for  it  be- 
gins later  in  the  morning  and  stops  earlier  in  the  afternoon. 
Under  the  dense  shade  and  mulch  of  the  cedar  swamps  of 
Northern  Minnesota,  the  snow  and  ice  often  remain  until 
the  beginning  of  summer.  The  Indians  claim  there  has 
never  been  a  time  when  they  could  not  find  ice  for  their 
sick  in  the  cedar  swamps  of  that  section.  This  retarding 
effect  on  the  melting  of  snows  in  the  spring  and  in  pre- 
venting the  run-off  is  of  far  greater  importance  in  the  case 
of  streams  that  rise  in  the  high  mountains  than  in  Mlnne- 


36  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

sota  and  Wisconsin,  where  the  land  is  more  nearly  level. 
Where  streams  have  their  sources  in  mountains,  as  those 
of  Colorado  and  other  Rocky  Mountain  States,  the  cutting 
away  of  the  forests  causes  a  heavy  flow  of  water  early  in 
the  spring  and  little  water  in  the  summer,  when  it  is  most 
needed  for  irrigation  purposes.  This  has  become  so  evi- 
dent that  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Denver,  Colorado, 
recently  petitioned  the  President  of  the  United  States  to 
reserve  such  land  in  forests  and  administer  it  at  public 
expense,  and  in  their  petition  used  in  part  the  following 
language : 

"The  streams  upon  which  the  irrigation  system  of  Colo- 
rado depends  are  fed  by  the  springs,  rivulets,  and  melting 
snows  of  the  mountains,  which  in  turn  are  nourished  and 
protected  by  the  native  forests.  Where  the  forests  have 
been  destroyed  and  the  mountain  slopes  laid  bare,  most 
unfavorable  conditions  prevail.  The  springs  and  the  rivu- 
lets have  disappeared,  the  winter  snow  melts  prematurely, 
and  the  flow  of  the  streams,  formerly  equable  and  continu- 
ous, has  become  fitful  and  uncertain.  Floods  and  drought, 
alternating  clearly,  indicate  that  the  natural  physical  condi- 
tions of  the  region  have  been  unduly  disturbed.  In  winter 
and  early  spring,  when  heavy  masses  of  snow  have  been 
accumulated  on  treeless  precipitous  slopes,  snow-  and  land- 
slides frequently  occur  with  disastrous  result  to  life  and 
property." 

THE    DISTRIBUTION   OF   WATER. 

The  distribution  or  "run-off"  of  the  water  is  often  a 
more  important  factor  in  its  economy  than  the  quantity 
available.  It  is  influenced  by  the  surface  conditions  of  the 
soil  cover,  by  the  porosity  and  structure  of  the  soil,  and  by 
the  slope.  There  are  two  kinds  of  run-off — the  surface 
run-off  and  the  underground  run-off  or  percolation.  The 
former  is  likely  to  do  injury  by  eroding  the  soil,  while  the 


FOREST   INFLUENCES.  37 

latter  is  generally  beneficial  to  vegetation  in  the  formation 
of  spri  rigs  and  in  raising  the  water  level  in  the  soil.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  less  surface  drainage  and  the  more  under- 
ground drainage  there  is,  the  greater  the  spring-water  sup- 
ply, and  vice  versa.  We  are,  therefore,  interested  in  deter- 
mining the  factors  that  increase  underground  drainage  and 
reduce  the  surface  flow. 

It  is  plain  that  whatever  retards  the  flow  of  water  over 
the  land,  aids  it  in  sinking  into  the  soil.  We  find  this  exem- 
plified in  swamps,  where  the  soft,  rough. ground  retards  the 
surface  flow,  and  in  forests,  where  the  foliage  checks  the 
water  in  its  descent  to  the  ground  and  the  forest  floor 
retards  the  surface  run-off.  Theoretically,  such  a  cover 
should  promote  the  flow  of  springs  and  maintain  the  height 
of  water  in  wells,  and  in  practice  we  find  that  this  is  often 
the  case.  In  some  cases,  springs  had  entirely  disappeared 
after  the  clearing  of  near-by  forests,  but  have  commenced  ( 
their  regular  flow  since  the  trees  have  been  allowed  to  grow ,  - 
again.  Springs  in  turn  influence  the  flow  of  water  in 
rivers,  so  that  forests  about  the  headwaters  of  streams  often 
have  a  most  potent  effect  in  maintaining  their  flow.  There 
is  in  fact  no  influence  of  the  forest  that  is  of  greater  impor- 
tance in  the  distribution  of  water  supplies  than  its  effect  in 
retarding  the  run-off,  even  though  its  effect  in  preventing 
evaporation  is  very  important. 

FOREST  INFLUENCES    ON   WIND-  AND    HAIL-STORMS. 

We  have  seen  that  the  wind-breaking  power  of  the  forest 
is  a  very  important  factor  in  retarding  evaporation,  and  in 
preventing  the  drifting  of  sandy  soil  and  snow.  In  the 
forest  the  air  may  be  rather  still,  while  in  the  open  a  pierc- 
ing gale  may  be  blowing;  in  consequence  there  are  no  bliz- 
zards in  a  wooded  country.  Tornadoes  of  great  force 
have  occasionally  broken  down  wide  areas  of  timber,  but 


38  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

instances  are  very  rare  in  which  they  have  continued  for 
long  distances  through  forests,  and  it  is  probably  true  that 
forests  have  a  tendency  to  prevent  their  formation  and 
perhaps  entirely  break  up  those  of  lesser  violence.  M. 
Becquerel  is  said  to  have  found  by  careful  study  that  in 
some  parts  of  Central  France  hail-storms  show  a  marked 
disinclination  to  enter  forests,  and  yet  occasionally  they  do 
so,  but  nothing  of  this  sort  has  been  noticed  here. 

FOREST  INFLUENCES  ON  FOGS  AND  CLOUDS. 

The  influence  of  forests  on  fogs  and  clouds  has  frequently 
been  mentioned.  The  fog  seems  to  linger  in  the  woods 
after  it  has  cleared  off  elsewhere.  Trees  also  act  as  con- 
densers and  gatherers  of  dew,  hoar-frost,  and  ice;  the  latter 
phenomenon  is  especially  remarkable  in  the  so-called  ice- 
storms,  where  the  accumulation  of  ice  on  the  trees  is  so 
great  as  to  break  them  down.  The  load  of  ice  on  some 
large  trees  is  probably  a  ton  or  more.  In  this  case  the  tree 
acts  simply  as  an  inorganic  body. 

IMPROVEMENT    OF    LAND    ON    WHICH    TREES    GROW. 

As  has  been  shown,  trees  add  large  amounts  of  soluble 
mineral  matters  to  the  soil  through  the  fall  and  decay  of 
their  leaves.  In  the  same  way  they  add  large  amounts  of 
humus  to  the  land,  which  helps  to  keep  the  soil  porous  and 
yet  makes  it  more  retentive  of  moisture  and  gases.  The 
roots  of  trees  often  penetrate  deep  into  the  soil  and  bring 
up  plant-food  that  would  not  be  reached  by  agricultural 
crops.  A  part  of  this  is  returned  to  the  surface  soil  by  the 
yearly  fall  of  the  leaves  and  in  the  twigs  and  branches  that 
are  left  on  the  ground  when  the  tree  is  cut  down.  The 
roots  deepen  the  soil,  and  by  their  decay  furnish  plant-food 
to  the  soil  and  leave  channels  through  which  water  and  air 


FOKEST   INFLUENCES.  39 

may  enter  the  subsoil.  It  has  been  estimated  that  after  a 
sandy  soil  in  New  England  is  so  exhausted  that  it  will  pro- 
duce nothing  but  red  mosses,  it  may  be  renewed  to  its  pris- 
tine vigor  and  productiveness  by  the  growth  of  trees  on  it 
for  thirty  years. 

WHY   THE    PRAIRIES   ARE    TREELESS. 

This  question  has  been  answered  in  many  ways,  but 
often,  it  would  seem,  by  persons  not  acquainted  with  the 
principles  of  forestry.  It  seems  that  the  best  way  of  getting 
a  clear  understanding  of  this  matter  is  to  consider  two  ex- 
tremes of  tree-growth.  Eastern  Minnesota  has  a  rainfall 
of  perhaps  26  to  35  inches  and  a  comparatively  moist  air, 
and  at  least  during  a  part  of  the  year  is  well  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  the  hardier  kinds  of  trees.  Here  we  find  the 
White  Pine,  Basswood,  Oak.  Elm,  Poplar,  and  other  trees 
attaining  large  size.  Western  Dakota  has  a  very  light 
rainfall,  mostly  in  the  spring,  and  a  very  high  rate  of  evapo- 
ration. Trees  can  scarcely  be  made  to  grow  in  this  section 
without  irrigation,  and  the  low  vegetation,  the  grasses, 
which  require  a  less  amount  of  water,  replace  the  trees.  It 
is  evident  that  between  locations  having  such  extremes  of 
tree-growth  there  must  be  a  place  where  the  trees  give  way 
to  the  lower  forms  of  vegetation.  Such  a  meridianal  zone 
is  found  in  Central  Minnesota,  and  though  it  has  probably 
changed  with  fluctuating  rainfall,  its  general  location  has 
remained  practically  the  same  for  many  years.  The  loca- 
tion of  this  zone  was  probably  gradually  driven  eastward,  „ 
for  many  years  previous  to  settlement,  by  the  practice  of 
the  Indians  of  burning  over  prairies  in  order  to  furnish  good 
pasturage  for  the  buffalo.  Of  late  years,  since  the  prairie 
fires  have  been  largely  prevented,  the  tree  line  has  moved 
westward  and  gained  a  little  on  the  prairies.  When  left  to 
itself,  the  western  limit  of  this  tree  zone  would  not  make 


40  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

very  great  progress  westward,  but  with  man's  assistance  in 
cultivation  and  various  other  ways,  it  may  be  extended 
much  farther  towards  the  arid  regions  than  if  left  to  natural 
conditions.  So  we  find  that,  while  great  sections  of  the 
interior  of  this  country  are  treeless  on  account  of  lack  of 
water,  trees  planted  on  them  and  properly  cared  for  may 
often  grow  thriftily.  But  trees  planted  on  our  prairies 
always  require  more  care  to  make  them  do  well  than  those 
planted  in  sections  of  greater  rainfall,  and  we  should  not 
expect  them  to  grow  as  large  as  in  the  timbered  sections 
without  irrigation. 

RAINFALL   AND    HEIGHT    OF   WATER   TABLE 
IN    THE    LAND. 

A  few  years  ago  it  was  argued  by  many  friends  of  tree- 
planting  that  it  was  practicable  by  the  planting  of  trees  to 
increase  the  rainfall  and  prevent  evaporation  in  the  great 
continental  plain  sufficiently  to  materially  change  the  cli- 
mate. The  large  rainfall  and  the  good  crops  produced  for 
a  number  of  years  in  the  drier  portions  of  this  area,  after 
considerable  planting  had  been  done,  seemed  to  indorse  all 
that  the  most  enthusiastic  of  tree-planters  claimed.  But  it 
must  be  very  evident  to  any  careful  student  of  the  subject 
that  such  small  plantings  as  were  made,  even  had  they  been 
maintained,  could  scarcely  have  had  any  appreciable  effect 
on  the  general  climate  of  so  vast  a  territory.  It  is  very 
evident,  too,  from  a  study  of  the  annual  rainfall,  that  it  has 
fluctuated  greatly  in  this  section,  and  that  we  have  per- 
haps not  recorded  the  least  or  the  greatest  amount  for  any 
one  year. 

There  are  some  facts  that  seem  to  show  plainly  that 
there  must  have  been  a  time  when  the  wTater-level  of  our 
lakes  was  much  lower  than  it  is  now  or  than  it  was  during 
the  very  dry  years  from  1890  to  1895,  when  the  rainfall  in 


FOKEST   INFLUENCES.  41 

most  cases  produced  no  flow  in  the  streams.  There  is  a 
lake  near  Devil's  Lake,  N.  D.,  where  in  1890  the  old  over- 
land trail  leading  west  terminated  abruptly  on  one  side  of 
the  lake  and  was  taken  up  again  in  the  continuation  of  its 
direction  on  the  opposite  side.  The  trail  is  clear  and  dis- 
tinct, showing  it  to  have  been  of  comparatively  recent  use,, 
It  is  a  reasonable  inference  that  when  this  trail  was  in  use, 
this  lake  was  dry.  There  are  places  near  the  shores  of 
Devil's  Lake  where  upright  stumps  are  standing  submerged 
in  water.  The  same  phenomenon  has  been  noticed  in 
other  places.  These  are  almost  certain  indications  of  a 
time  or  times  when  the  beds  of  these  lakes,  where  the 
stumps  are,  were  out  of  water  or  very  nearly  so  for  a  suffi- 
cient length  of  time  for  the  trees  to  grow.  The  climate 
must  have  been  very  dry,  and  the  great  continental  plain, 
or  at  least  portions  of  it,  must  have  bordered  pretty  closely 
upon  a  desert,  and  the  "Great  American  Desert"  may  have 
been  a  reality.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  the  knowledge 
we  are  gaining  of  the  unknown  past,  as  well  as  the  records 
of  more  recent  years,  point  to  the  recurrence  of  great  fluctu- 
ations in  the  annual  rainfall  of  this  section,  and  it  seems 
probable  that  such  changes  follow  series  of  years,  and  that 
the  recedence  of  our  lakes  may  be  followed  by  periods  of 
higher  water. 

But  the  influence  of  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  on  water 
'  supplies  must  be  taken  into  account  in  this  connection,  for 
'  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  man  has  changed  the  conditions 
of  the  soil  sufficiently  to  greatly  influence  the  run-off.  The 
breaking  up  of  large  areas  of  prairie  sod,  with  its  low  rate  of 
evaporation,  and  the  planting  of  such  land  to  agricultural 
crops  with  a  relatively  high  rate  of  evaporation,  has  resulted 
in  a  loss  of  soil  water.  Then  the  cultivated  soil  takes  up 
more  water  than  the  sod-bound  prairie  slopes,  so  that  it 
does  not  have  so  good  an  opportunity  to  collect  in  lakes 
and  swamps,  which  often  supplied  the  water  of  wells.  And 


42  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

further,  the  straightening  and  cleaning  out  of  watercourses, 
and  the  draining  of  swamps  in  the  effort  to  get  arable  land, 
has  had  a  similar  effect  on  subsoil  water  supplies. 

HOT  WINDS. 

The  hot  winds  of  the  plains  wThich  so  often  cause  serious 
injury  to  farm  crops  in  Kansas  Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas 
have  been  ascribed  to  the  arid  "staked"  plains,  whence, 
taking  a  northeasterly  direction,  they  drawr  all  the  moisture 
from  the  vegetation  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  The 
view  has  also  been  presented  that  they  have  their  origin  on 
the  Pacific  Coast,  ascend  the  Rocky  Mountains,  lose  their 
moisture,  and  descend  on  the  eastern  slopes.  But  all  the- 
ories that  ascribe  their  origin  to  a  distant  source  are  inade- 
quate to  explain  their  phenomena.  For  instance,  all  who 
are  acquainted  with  these  winds  know  that  they  blow  only 
during  very  dry  weather,  when  the  earth  is  heated  very 
hot,  that  a  good  rain  speedily  brings  them  to  an  end,  and 
that  they  blow  only  during  the  daytime,  commencing 
about  9  A.M.  and  continuing  until  sundown.  This  daily 
movement  is  often  constant  for  several  weeks,  showing 
that  there  is  evidently  some  connection  between  them  and 
the  course  of  the  sun.  For  these  reasons  and  others  which 
would  require  too  much  space  to  give  here,  the  best  authori- 
ties unite  in  attributing  them  to  local  origin. 

Mr.  George  C.  Curtiss  describes  the  process  of  the  produc- 
tion of  a  typical  hot  wind  as  follows:  "The  necessary  con- 
ditions are  those  of  the  'warm  wave/  namely,  a  diminishing 
pressure  to  the  northward,  producing  southerly  winds 
which  initially  elevate  the  temperature  above  the  normal. 
A  cloudless  sky  favors  an  intense  insolation,  as  a  result  of 
which  the  dry  ground  is  soon  raised  to  an  extreme  tempera- 
ture, and  the  air  is  heated  from  it  by  radiation,  reflection, 
and  conduction.  The  resulting  diminution  of  density  due 


FOEEST    INFLUENCES.  43 

to  the  rise  of  temperature  furnishes  impetus  to  previously 
existing  horizontal  currents,  and  by  10  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing the  hot  wind  is  fully  developed.  Hundreds  of  miles  of 
hot  dry  earth  contribute  to  maintain  and  feed  the  current, 
and,  gathering  strength  as  the  sun  mounts  higher,  the  hot 
wind  sweeps  over  the  defenceless  prairie.  Neither  hills 
nor  forests  rise  in  its  path  to  break  its  power  or  dispute  its 
sway,  and,  with  no  enemy  save  the  tardy  rain-cloud,  the 
fetid  blast  sucks  out  the  life-sap  of  the  growing  grain.  It 
will  be  readily  seen,  then,  that  each  of  the  States — Kansas, 
Nebraska,  and  North  and  South  Dakota — develops  its  own 
hot  winds  and  cannot  charge  them  to  the  account  of  its 
neighbors." 

The  local  origin  of  these  winds  at  once  suggests  the  desira- 
bility of  frequent  windbreaks  on  the  prairie  farms,  as  offer- 
ing the  most  practical  way  of  breaking  them  up.  Irrigation 
of  large  areas  will  also  undoubtedly  do  much  to  prevent 
them. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

TREE-PLANTING  ON  PRAIRIES. 

THE  subject  of  tree-planting  in  this  country  naturally 
divides  itself  under  the  two  heads  of  prairic-plcnting  and 
forest-planting.  The  former  relates  to  the  limited  planting 
of  trees  on  our  prairies  for  ornament,  protection,  and  use, 
and  the  latter  to  the  care  and  management  of  timber  lands 
and  the  planting  of  trees  for  profit  from  their  growth .  Our 
people  are  very  generally  impressed  with  the  importance 
of  prairie-planting  for  protection  and  ornament,  but  are 
too  prone  to  regard  the  care  and  management  of  timber 
lands  for  the  production  of  timber  crops  as  a  matter  of 
little  concern  and  very  impracticable.  (The  subject  of 
the  regeneration  of  forests  is  treated  in  the  chapter  on 
Forest-planting  and  Treatment.) 

PRAIRIE-PLANTING 

Whatever  the  ulterior  object  of  prairie-planting,  the 
subject  of  protection  to  the  buildings,  their  occupants, 
and  the  cattle  in  the  field  should  always  be  first  considered. 
The  crops  in  our  Central  States  are  most  liable  to  injury 
from  the  southwest  wind  of  summer,  which  dries  them 
out,  and  the  northwest  wind  of  winter,  which  blows  the 
snow  from  the  land,  causing  it  to  lose  the  snow  water.  It 
also  causes  a  loss  of  evaporation,  which  goes  on  even  in 
winter  from  the  bare  ground,  and  from  exposed  crops, 
causing  them  to  winter-kill.  The  same  winds  are  also 

44 


TREE-PLANTING    ON    PRAIRIES.  ^O 

the  most  uncomfortable  to  the  occupants  of  farm  build- 
ings, and  are  most  likely  to  cause  dust-storms,  which 
should  be  especially  guarded  against. 

Windbreak  is  a  general  name  given  to  anything  that 
gives  protection  from  wind.  On  the  prairies  it  is  often 
applied  to  a  single  row  of  trees  planted  for  protection. 

Shelter-belt  is  a  term  more  often  used  to  signify  several 
or  a  large  number  of  rows  of  trees,  but  the  term  is  often 
used  interchangeably  with  windbreak. 

Grove  is  a  term  that  refers  to  comparatively  large  bodies 
of  trees  which  may  be  planted  for  shelter,  fuel,  or  other 
purposes. 

Protection  to  Buildings  may  be  furnished  by  a  few  rows 
or  a  grove  of  trees.  It  is  generally  best  to  locate  the  build- 
ings in  a  grove,  or  grow  one  up  around  them,  so  that  pro- 
tection may  be  afforded  from  every  quarter  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. The  garden  should  also  be  included  in  the  grove 
or  shelter-belt  about  the  buildings. 

Distance  of  the  Trees  from  the  Buildings  and  Roadways. 
Of  whatever  the  protection  consists,  it  should  not  be  close 
to  the  buildings  or  to  any  paths  which  are  used  in  winter, 
for  the  snow-drifts,  which  always  form  to  the  leeward  of 
such  protection,  may  become  a  great  nuisance  under  such 
circumstances  during  winters  of  great  snowfall.  The  wind- 
break had  better  be  placed  about  one  hundred  feet  back 
from  the  buildings,  and  if  shade  is  wanted  it  can  be  ob- 
tained from  scattered  trees  near  the  buildings,  which  will 
not  drift  the  snow.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  planting 
of  trees  on  the  north  side  of  a  roadway.  The  drifts  of 
snow  which  would  be  formed  to  the  leeward  of  a  windbreak 
so  planted  would  take  longer  to  thaw  in  the  spring,  and 
would  keep  the  road  muddy  and  in  poor  condition  after 
those  that  were  not  protected  had  become  dry  and  firm.  A 
row  of  trees  is  very  appropriate  by  the  side  of  a  street  or 
roadway  and  affords  a  pleasant  shade,  and  if  not  planted 


46  PRINCIPLES   OP   AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 

too  closely  together  will  not  drift  the  snow  sufficiently  to 
be  an  objection. 

Protection  to  Crops  by  Windbreaks.  The  objection  to 
windbreaks  close  to  driveways  may  also  be  made  against 
their  use  in  fields,  for  they  often  keep  the  land  for  a  short 
distance  to  leeward  wet  and  in  unfit  condition  to  work  after 
the  rest  of  the  field  has  become  dry.  This  is  an  objection 
where  spring  grains  are  grown,  but  to  winter  grains  it  is  an 
advantage.  On  the  other  hand,  the  protection  of  a  wind- 
break may  give  a  much-needed  or  beneficial  covering  of 
snow  to  crops  on  the  leeward  side.  The  protection  from 
dust-storms  and  drying  winds  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. The  important  question  is  how  to  get  the  advan- 
tages without  the  disadvantages.  In  many  sections  the 
disadvantage  of  having  the  snow  linger  on  the  field  near 
the  windbreak  may  be  overcome  by  leaving  a  strip  of  land 
near  it  in  permanent  meadow,  or  use  it  for  a  rotation  that 
does  not  take  in  crops  that  require  very  early  planting. 
But  even  with  spring-planted  grains,  it  is  more  than  prob- 
able that  windbreaks  properly  planted  are  an  advantage 
when  their  benefits  are  considered  for  a  series  of  years.  It 
ofttimes  happens  that  low  windbreaks  are  more  beneficial 
than  high  windbreaks  in  holding  the  snow  on  the  land,  for 
the  high  windbreaks  often  form  a  great  drift  that  may 
remain  late  in  the  spring,  while  the  low  windbreak  nowhere 
forms  a  large  drift,  but  spreads  the  snow  for  long  distances. 
Professor  Budd  says  that  in  parts  of  the  great  continental 
plain  of  Russia,  where  the  climatic  changes  are  much  the 
same  as  in  this  section,  the  use  of  low  windbreaks  in  wheat- 
fields  is  very  common. 

Height  of  Windbreak.  From  the  preceding  paragraph 
it  will  be  seen  that  low  windbreaks  may  often  serve  a  better 
purpose  than  high  ones  in  protecting  fields.  Exactly  what 
is  meant  by  a  low  windbreak  may  be  an  open  question,  but 
for  the  purposes  of  this  discussion  a  low  windbreak  may  be 


TREE-PLANTING    ON    PRAIRIES. 


47 


considered  one  under  twenty  feet  in  height.  In  Russia 
and  at  the  Experiment  Station  at  Indian  Head,  Manitoba, 
windbreaks  of  Artemisia  tobolksiana,  which  seldom  grows 
more  than  eight  feet  high,  are  often  used.  About  farm 
buildings  windbreaks  cannot  be  too  high,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose the  largest,  longest-lived  trees  should  be  used. 

Kinds  of  Trees  for  a  Windbreak.  In  too  many  instances 
too  many  tree-planters  on  the  prairies  have  put  out  exclu- 


FIG.  3. — A  young  White  Willow  windbreak  on  dry  prairie.     Grown 
entirely  by  mulching  after  being  well  started. 

sively  quick-growing,  short-lived  trees,  such  as  the  Cotton- 
wood  and  Lombardy  Poplar,  and  after  fifteen  or  twenty 
years  they  have  found  their  trees  dying  and  nothing  coming 
on  to  take  their  places.  The  quick-growing  kinds  are  very 
desirable  as  a  protection  for  the  near  future,  but  they  are 
often  short-lived  and  should  never  be  planted  alone. 
Among  them  should  be  planted  a  sufficient  number  of 


48  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

long-lived  and  perhaps  slower-growing  kinds,  to  afford 
protection  in  later  years,  when  the  short-lived  kinds  have 
died  out.  The  soil  and  location  have  much  to  do  in  de- 
termining the  longevity  of  varieties;  for  instance,  the  Cot- 
tonwood  and  Lombardy  Poplar  are  generally  short-lived 
trees  when  planted  on  dry  land,  but  when  planted  in  loca- 
tions where  their  roots  reach  the  permanent  water-level, 
their  period  of  life  may  be  considerably  lergthened,  and 
they  may  then  even  be  regarded  as  long-lived  trees. 

In  starting  a  grove  or  windbreak  on  our  Northern  prai- 
ries, there  is  probably  no  better  tree  to  begin  with  than  the 
White  Willow.  It  is  quick-growing,  rather  long-lived  in 
most  situations,  makes  good  summer  fuel,  and  renews  itself 
very  rapidly  from  the  stump.  The  Green  Ash  would 
probably  rank  next  as  a  pioneer  tree.  The  White  Elm, 
and  the  Catalpa  where  it  is  hardy,  are  also  very  valuable 
for  this  purpose,  but,  generally,  should  follow  the  White 
Willow.  The  Cottonwood  may  sometimes,  though  very 
seldom,  be  the  best  to  use,  but  on  average  prairie  land  it 
would  be  better  if  the  White  Willow  or  Green  Ash  were 
always  planted  instead. 

After  a  good  windbreak  has  been  secured,  it  is  safe  to 
plant  out  the  hardy  coniferous  evergreens  and  such  trees 
as  the  Mountain  Ash,  European  White  Birch,  and  other 
similar  ornamental  trees.  Wind  protection  is  beneficial 
to  all  trees  on  our  prairies  and  necessary  for  many  of  our 
best  ornamental  kinds  and  often  makes  the  difference  be- 
tween success  and  failure  in  growing  them. 

Distance  Apart.  In  the  planting  of  groves,  we  should  aim 
to  get  the  land  shaded  by  the  trees  as  soon  as  practicable, 
and  to  keep  it  covered  with  a  canopy  of  leaves.  The 
United  States  government  recommended  the  planting  of 
trees  four  feet  apart  each  way,  with  the  idea  that  when  so 
planted  they  would  quickly  shade  the  ground  and  conse- 
quently keep  out  grass  and  retard  evaporation.  Some 


TREE-PLANTING    ON    PRAIRIES.  49 

successful  plantings  have  been  made  on  this  plan,  but 
when  planted  so  closely  together,  the  branches  grow  into 
the  rows  after  a  few  years  and  cultivation  must  be  discon- 
tinued. In  this  country  we  have  so  much  very  bright 
sunshiny  weather  that  grass  can  grow  under  foliage  that 
would  kill  it  out  in  a  more  humid  climate,  and  we  find  that 
trees  planted  four  feet  apart  each  way  seldom  afford  suffi- 
cient shade  to  kill  the  grass  under  them  for  many  years. 
This  is  especially  true  of  such  trees  as  the  Cottonwood, 
Lombardy  Poplar,  and  White  Elm  when  planted  alone,  as 
they  have  open  foliage  that  does  not  furnish  a  dense  shade. 
Among  tree-planters  who  have  had  a  large  experience  in 
prairie-planting,  there  has  been  a  tendency  of  late  years  to 
plant  two  feet  apart  in  rows  eight  feet  apart,  and  some  of 
our  most  successful  planters  prefer  even  more  room  than 
this  between  the  rows.  When  plantings  are  made  2x8 
feet,  the  same  number  of  trees  are  required  for  an  acre  as 
when  planted  4x4  feet,  but  the  former  distance  has  the 
advantage  over  the  latter  in  that  the  space  between  the 
rows  can  be  cultivated  for  perhaps  ten  years  or  more,  by 
which  time  most  trees  will  have  formed  a  dense  shade  and 
be  able  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Where  a  much  greater 
distance  than  eight  feet  is  allowed  between  the  rows,  we 
generally  fail  to  get  forest  conditions  for  many  years,  and  to 
that  extent  fall  short  of  an  important  requisite  in  prairie- 
planting.  The  distances  given  here  might  need  to  be  modi- 
fied to  suit  different  varieties  and  local  climatic  conditions. 
Clear  Plantings.  Most  of  the  plantings  on  our  prairies 
consist  wholly  of  one  kind.  In  some  cases  best  results 
are  thus  obtained,  but  they  are  seldom  as  satisfactory  as 
plantings  made  up  of  several  different  kinds.  One  of  the 
greatest  drawbacks  to  plantings  made  up  entirely  of  one 
kind  is  that  the  fact  that  drought,  insects,  or  fungous  dis- 
ease may  destroy  the  whole  planting  at  one  time,  while 
in  a  judiciously  mixed  planting  this  could  hardly  occur. 


50  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

Mixed  Plantings,  when  properly  made,  have  the  follow- 
ing advantages:  (1)  They  make  possible  the  growing  of 
species  that  form  a  protection  in  the  least  possible  time, 
and  still  have,  coming  on  in  the  same  grove,  longer-lived 
and  better  kinds  to  take  their  places.  (2)  Many  kinds  that 
are  somewhat  tender  are  helped  very  much  by  being  grown 
among  the  hardier  kinds  until  well  established.  In  this 
case  the  protecting  trees  are  called  nurse  trees.  The 
Scotch  Pine  is  seldom  a  success  when  standing  alone  on 
our  Western  prairies,  but  when  partially  protected  by  some 


FIG.  4. — A  good  tree  claim  in  Minnesota  near  the    Dakota  line. 
Located  on  high  prairie.     Soil  very  dry. 

deciduous  tree  it  stands  very  well.  The  same  is  generally 
true  of  Hard  Maple,  Catalpa,  and  Black  Walnut  towrard 
their  northernmost  limits.  (3)  In  good  mixed  plantings 
the  ground  is  more  likely  to  be  properly  shaded  and  pro- 
tected from  winds  than  it  would  be  in  clear  plantings  of 
such  open-foliage  species  as  the  Cottonwood  or  White  Elm, 


TREE-PLANTING  ON   PRAIRIES.  51 

which  do  well  and  afford  good  shade  when  mixed  with 
Green  Ash  or  Box-elder.  (4)  Mixed  plantings  are  most 
interesting  and  ornamental.  (5)  They  attract  more  birds 
by  their  better  protection  and  the  greater  variety  of  food 
offered.  (6)  While  the  chance  of  injury  to  some  of  the 
species  by  climatic  changes,  diseases,  and  insects  is  in- 
creased, the  possibility  of  total  loss  from  any  or  all  of  these 
causes  is  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

The  Most  Important  Constituent  of  a  Prairie  Grove 
of  mixed  trees  should  be  some  well-known  durable  kinds, 
as  the  Elm,  Ash,  Hackberry,  Basswood,  Soft  Maple,  Hard 
Maple,  or  Box-elder  of  deciduous  kinds  and  such  standard 
evergreens  as  White  Spruce,  Norway  Spruce,  Red  Cedar, 
Bull  Pine,  and  Scotch  Pine,  of  which  there  should  be  a 
sufficient  number  to  completely  shade  the  ground  when 
the  others  are  gone.  On  the  outside,  especially  on  the 
north  and  west,  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  put  at  least  a 
few  rows  of  White  Willow,  or  possibly  Cottonwood,  to  fur- 
nish a  quick  protection.  The  rest  of  the  grove  should  con- 
sist of  hardy  sorts,  and  may  include  some  of  the  evergreens 
and  such  fruit-bearing  trees  or  shrubs  as  the  Wild  Plum, 
Wild  Black  Cherry,  Russian  Mulberry,  and  June-berry. 
These  latter  furnish  food  for  the  birds  and  may  often  be  a 
help  in  supplying  the  home  table.  The  plan  of  planting 
with  a  view  of  providing  some  food  for  birds  is  not  mere 
sentiment,  for  they  protect  our  gardens  from  many  insects, 
and  if  we  furnish  an  abundance  of  Russian  Mulberry  they 
will  not  trespass  much  on  our  strawberries  or  raspberries. 
It  is  the  author's  opinion  that  in  all  our  prairie-planting  we 
should  pay  more  attention  to  using  our  native  fruits  and 
Russian  Mulberry  as  plants  of  secondary  importance. 

List  of  Trees  for  Planting.  The  adaptability  of  trees  to 
any  locality  is  not  alone  dependent  on  climate,  but  is 
affected  very  largely  by  the  quality  of  the  soil,  so  that  any 
list  of  trees  that  might  be  given  for  a  large  area  would 


52  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

necessarily  be  open  to  some  criticism.  Lists  of  this  sort 
should  be  regarded  as  suggestive  only,  and  the  intelligent 
planter  will  naturally  obtain  in  addition  the  experience 
of  tree-planters  in  his  locality  before  deciding  on  the  kinds 
to  plant.  Herewith  are  given  lists  of  trees  for  the  northern 
prairie  States,  as  there  is  commonly  a  lack  of  such  infor- 
mation among  the  people  of  that  section. 

For  Porous  Moist  Soils  in  Southern  Minnesota  and 
Northern  Iowa.  White  Elm,  Black  Walnut,  Green  Ash,  and 
Hard  Maple  in  equal  quantities,  with  a  scattering  of  the 
fruit  plants.  The  Hackberry  may  wrholly  or  in  part  take 
the  place  of  the  White  Elm,  and  the  Box-elder  the  place  of 
the  Green  Ash.  The  White  Willow,  Basswood,  and  Soft 
Maple  would  also  do  well  in  such  a  location.  One  of  the 
main  kinds  might  be  replaced  by  the  White  or  Norway 
Spruce,  Douglas  Fir,  or  White  Pine.  In  fact  such  land  as 
this  will  grow  any  of  the  trees  adapted  to  this  section. 

For  Dry  Prairie  Soils  in  Southern  Minnesota  and  North- 
ern Iowa.  Green  Ash,  Box-elder,  White  Elm,  and  White 
Willow  in  equal  quantities,  with  a  scattering  of  fruit  plants. 
Basswood  and  Hackberry  might  be  used  to  a  limited  extent, 
and  White  Spruce,  Red  Cedar,  Norway  Pine,  White  Pine; 
or  Scotch  Pine  might  be  used  in  the  place  of  one  of  the  main 
kinds. 

For  Moist,  Porous  Prairie  Soils  in  Northern  Minnesota 
and  the  Dakotas.  White  Willow,  White  Elm,  Box-elder, 
Basswood,  and  Green  Ash  in  equal  quantities,  with  a  scat- 
tering of  fruit  plants.  In  some  localities  it  might  be  best 
to  use  Cottonwood  on  the  outside  of  the  grove.  The  Hack- 
berry  might  take  the  place  of  part  of  the  White  Elm  arid 
White  Spruce,  Arborvita;,  Norway  Pine,  Bull  Pine,  Red 
Cedar,  and  some  other  conifers  might  be  used  to  a  limited 
extent. 

For  High  Prairie  Soils  in  the  Dakotas.  Cottonwood, 
White  Willow,  Box-elder,  and  White  Elm  in  equal  quan- 


TREE-PLAXTIXG    OX    PRAIRIES.  53 

tities,  with  a  scattering  of  fruit  plants.     White  Spruce  and 
native  Red  Cedar  might  also  be  used  in  a  small  way. 


FIG.  5.— Hardy  Catalpa.     Plantation    of    South  Amona 
Colony,  Kansas. 

Lists  of  Trees  Commonly  Planted,  arranged  in  the  order 
of  their  hardiness:    Deciduous   trees — Green  Ash,  White 


54  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

Willow,  White  Elm,  Box-elder,  Bass  wood,  White  Poplar, 
Hackberry,  Soft  Maple,  Canoe  Birch,  Yellow  Locust, 
Catalpa.  Evergreen  trees — Red  Cedar,  Dwarf  Mountain 
Pine,  Jack  Pine,  Bull  Pine.  White  Spruce,  Austrian  Pine, 
Scotch  Pine,  Douglas  Spruce,  Norway  Pine,  Norway 
Spruce,  and  White  Pine. 

Size  of  Trees.  In  the  case  of  deciduous  trees  it  is  gen- 
erally best  to  start  with  one-year-old  thrifty  seedlings, 
although  trees  two  years  old  may  often  be  used  to  advan- 
tage. The  Oak,  Walnut,  and  similar  trees  are  better 
started  from  seeds  where  they  are  to  remain,  and  the 
White  Willow  should  be  started  from  cuttings.  Seedling 
Elm,  Ash,  and  Cottonwood  may  often  be  pulled  from  some 
river  bank  or  lake  shore,  or  bought  of  nurserymen  at  a 
very  low  figure,  or  they  may  be  raised  from  seeds.  White 
Willow  cuttings  can  generally  be  obtained  from  some 
neighbor  or  from  nurseries.  In  the  case  of  conifers,  trans- 
planted seedlings  should  be  used  where  they  are  to  be 
planted  amongst  grass  or  brush;  but  where  best  condi- 
tions are  found,  two-year,  or  even  one-year,  seedlings  may 
be  successfully  set  out.  Whatever  the  source  of  any  stock 
that  is  to  be  planted,  it  should  be  thrifty  and  vigorous 
and  not  weak  or  diseased. 

Methods  of  Planting.  The  methods  used  in  prairie- 
planting  are  much  the  same  as  for  transplanting  in  the 
nursery.  In  every  case  much  pains  should  be  taken  to 
have  the  soil  in  the  best  condition.  It  is  generally  better 
to  delay  planting  for  a  year  than  to  attempt  it  in  poorly 
prepared  soil.  Tree  plantings  have  been  made  on  our 
prairies  by  sowing  tree  seeds  broadcast  in  autumn  after 
first  carefully  preparing  the  soil,  but  the  plan  is  seldom 
Successful.  A  start  can,  however,  be  made  from  seeds  by 
planting  the  seeds  in  hills  either  alone  or  with  corn  or 
beans.  In  the  latter  case  the  tree  seedlings  often  do  very 
well  and  do  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  crop.  The 
seedlings  are  cultivated  in  the  spring  after  the  crop  is  re- 


TREE-PLANTING   ON"    PRAIRIES.  55 

moved,  and  as  they  are  in  rows,  this  is  a  very  simple  matter. 
The  common  and  generally  most  successful  plan  with  trees 
that  can  be  easily  transplanted  is  to  start  with  seedlings 
and  plant  in  rows.  The  simplest  and  easiest  way  of  doing 
this  is  to  furrow  one  way,  mark  out  the  other  \vay,  and  plant 
the  trees  in  the  furrows  at  the  intersections.  If  Black 
Walnut  or  any  of  the  oaks  are  wanted  in  a  mixed  planting 
it  is  generally  best  to  plant  the  other  species  first  and  put  in 
the  nuts  or  acorns  afterwards.  Where  it  is  desirable  to 
plant  seedlings  or  cuttings  to  fill  vacancies,  a  pointed  stick 
or  spade  may  be  used  to  make  the  hole.  Whatever  method 
is  used  in  planting,  it  is  most  important  that  the  soil  be 
packed  firmly  around  the  roots,  so  they  will  not  dry  out. 
If  the  soil  is  dry,  it  cannot  be  made  too  solid  around  the 
roots.  If  cuttings  are  used,  they  should  be  made  about 
14  inches  long,  and  in  planting  be  pushed  into  the  loose  soil 
in  a  slanting  position,  leaving  only  one  bud  above  the 
surface,  as  recommended  for  the  planting  of  cuttings. 

Cultivation  should  be  commenced  shortly  after  planting 
and  be  repeated  often  enough  to  keep  the  top  three  inches 
of  soil  loose,  so  as  to  form  a  dust  blanket  to  retard  evapora- 
tion during  dry  weather.  The  soil  should  never  be  allowed 
to  become  baked  hard  after  a  rain,  but  the  crust  should  be 
broken  up  with  a  horse  cultivator  as  soon  after  a  rain  as  it 
can  be  worked.  Cultivation  should  be  discontinued  after 
the  first  of  August,  in  order  to  encourage  early  ripening  of 
the  wood.  The  weeds  that  grow  after  this  time  of  year 
will  do  no  harm. 

One  of  the  best  tools  for  early  cultivation  of  small  seed- 
lings is  Breed's  Weeder,  which  may  be  worked  both  ways 
and  cleans  out  the  weeds  to  perfection.  The  ordinary  corn 
cultivator  is  also  a  good  implement  for  this  purpose. 
Later  cultivation  should  consist  of  working  the  soil  with  a 
one-horse  cultivator  or  plough.  If  the  horse  implements 
are  properly  used  there  will  be  no  necessity  of  hand  hoeing, 
for  the  few  weeds  that  grow  in  the  rows  of  trees  will  do  no 


56  PEINCIPLES    OF   AMEEICAX    FORESTRY. 

injury  to  them.  Some  planters  sow  oats  among  the  young 
trees  for  protection  when  cultivation  ceases,  but  if  field 
mice  are  abundant  it  may  be  best  not  to  do  so.  Late  in 
autumn  of  the  first  year  or  two  after  planting  some  soil 
should  be  turned  towards  the  trees  with  a  plough  to  pro- 
tect them. 

Thinning.  In  growing  prairie  groves,  we  should  always 
aim  to  have  the  tops  of  the  trees  just  touch  one  another 
without  serious  crowding,  but  still  have  the  soil  shaded  and 
j  protected  from  wind.  In  order  to  bring  this  about,  'the 
grove  must  be  thinned  occasionally,  for  although  the  trees 
would  thin  themselves  if  left  alone,  it  would  be  at  the 
expense  of  growth  and  perhaps  cause  serious  injury.  Trees 
that  are  crowded  together  may  suffer  more  from  drought 
than  those  that  have  plenty  of  room  for  their  roots.  This 
is  especially  true  of  tender  trees  on  dry  land.  If  the  trees 
begin  to  crowd  one  another,  the  poorest  should  be  re- 
moved, but  this  should  be  done  carefully  and  never  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  let  in  much  sunlight,  which  would  en- 
courage the  growth  of  grass,  weeds,  and  side  branches. 
Thinning  may  be  done  at  any  time,  but  if  the  weed  taken 
out  is  to  be  used  for  fence-posts  or  poles,  it  would  be  better 
to  cut  in  winter  and  peel  at  once  to  aid  it  in  curing. 

The  Blowing  Out  of  Small  Seedlings  planted  in  prairie 
soil  is  not  uncommon  where  they  are  in  very  exposed  situa- 
tions. The  movement  of  the  young  seedlings  by  the  wind 
keeps  the  soil  loose  around  them,  which  the  severe  winds 
blow  away.  Occasionally  by  such  means  the  roots  may 
be  left  three  or  four  inches  out  of  the  ground  the  first  season. 
In  such  very  severe  locations  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to 
mulch  the  soil  with  straw  or  similar  material  until  the 
seedlings  are  well  established,  after  wrhich  they  may  be 
cultivated,  or  the  mulching  process  may  be  continued  until 
they  will  take  care  of  themselves. 

The  Proper  Location  of  the  Buildings  on  a  Farm  is  a 
very  important  matter  and  seldom  receives  the  attention 


TREE-PLANTING    ON"    PRAIRIES.  57 

which  its  importance  demands.  The  position  of  the  build- 
ings determines  the  location  of  the  drives  and  of  the  shelter- 
belts  if  any  are  to  be  planted.  There  are  many  factors 
which  should  enter  into  the  study  of  this  question,  among 
the  first  of  which  is  the  lay  of  the  land.  Good  drainage 
and  good  water  are  the  first  requisites  for  the  location  of  a 
home,  after  which  come  convenience  and  beauty.  It  is 
very  desirable  that  the  first  location  be  made  just  right, 
since  when  other  improvements  and  buildings  have  been 
commenced  it  can  seldom  be  changed  without  much  extra 
expense.  In  the  case  of  most  of  our  farms  the  subject  of 
plans  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence,  as  small  cramped 
grounds  about  inconveniently  arranged  buildings  bear 
abundant  evidence. 

In  Fig.  6  is  shown  four  plans  suggestive  of  the  proper  lo- 
cation of  the  shelter-belts  about  farm  buildings  located  on 
level  prairies,  and  varying  according  to  the  location  of  the 
main  highway.  Five  acres  in  the  form  of  a  rectangle,  25 
rods  wide  and  32  rods  long,  are  included  in  the  land  about 
the  buildings,  and  this  has  a  shelter-belt  five  rods  wide  on 
the  north  and  west  sides,  and  on  the  south  side  two  rows  of 
trees  ten  feet  apart,  with  the  trees  one  rod  apart  in  the 
rows.  Within  this  enclosure  are  all  the  farm  buildings, 
orchard,  fruit,  and  vegetable  garden,  barnyards,  etc.  The 
house  should  be  within  100  feet  of  the  road,  and  the  stock 
buildings  at  least  100  feet  from  the  house  and  garden. 
About  the  buildings  and  garden  some  supplementary  wind- 
breaks and  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  will  be  needed  for 
wind  protection  and  for  beautifying  the  place.  This  ar- 
rangement gives  plenty  of  room  for  the  buildings,  barnyards, 
garden,  and  orchard,,  and,  while  all  the  land  enclosed  may 
not  be  needed  for  these  purposes,  the  remainder  is  well 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  general  farm  crops.  The  plans 
are  only  suggestive  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  work  out 
details,  and  there  are  comparatively  few  farms  that  they 


58 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


would  fit  exactly.  For  instance,  while  it  is  desirable  to 
have  the  buildings  centrally  located,  their  position  must 
frequently  be  pushed  to  one  side  on  account  of  a  swamp  or 


FIG.  6. — Suggestion  for  laying  out  the  grounds  about  the  buildings 
on  prairie  farms,  showing  arrangements  adapted  to  a  highway 
located  on  four  different  sides.  Size  30X37  rods,  enclosing  five 
acres,  exclusive  of  shelter-belt  on  north  and  west  sides  five  rods 
wide.  Rows  of  trees  indicated.  See  figure  (7)  for  further  details 
and  suggestions. 


lowland  which  is  not  suitable  for  them,  or  their  position 
may  be  determined  by  a  beautiful  natural  grove.  Fig.  7 
shows  a  plan  for  a  south  front  drawn  on  a  larger  scale.  It 


TREE-PLANTING   ON   PRAIRIES. 


59 


may  often  be  desirable  to  change  the  shape  of  the  land 
enclosed,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  prairie  farms  a  plan 
similar  to  this  would  work  out  to  good  advantage  and  the 
area  enclosed  by  windbreaks  could  often  be  increased  to 
ten  acres  to  good  advantage. 

A  rule  that  should  be  carefully  followed  in  all  tree  plant- 
ings is  that  the  view  from  the  most  commonly  used  rooms 


-  37  rods  • 


Highway 

FIG.  7. — Suggestion  in  detail  for  laying  out  the  grounds  about  the 
buildings  on  a  prairie  farm.  Highway  on  south,  size  30X37  rods, 
enclosing  five  acres;  windbreak  on  north  and  west  five  rods  wide. 
Two  rows  of  trees  next  to  highway.  Rows  of  trees  indicated. 

of  anything  that  is  suggestive  of  pleasant  associations  or 
that  is  especially  interesting  or  entertaining  should  not  be 
cut  off.  Under  this  head  would  be  included  the  view  from 
the  living-room  windows,  of  the  travelled  wagon-road  or 
perhaps  of  the  railroad,  of  the  neighboring  houses  or  per- 
haps a  near-by  lake,  and  of  the  important  fields  on  the  farm, 


60  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

especially  those  where  stock  is  pastured.  These  views  can 
generally  be  secured  without  seriously  impairing  the  value 
of  the  windbreaks,  by  cutting  small  openings  in  them  or 
perhaps  by  simply  shortening  the  trees,  so  that  they  will 
not  interfere  with  the  line  of  sight. 

The  Cash  Value  of  properly  placed  (not  misplaced) 
shelter-belts  is  _  difficult  to  estimate,  but  they  have  an 
actual  cash  value  aside  from  their  ornamental  value. 
From  a  number  of  observations  I  am  inclined  to  believe 
that  such  a  shelter-belt  as  is  here  described  will  often  add 
as  much  as  $1,000  to  the  selling  price  of  a  quarter  sec- 
tion of  land,  and  that  two  dollars  per  annum  for  each  head 
of  neat  cattle  kept  is  not  a  high  estimate  of  its  annual 
return.  Besides  this,  if  seedlings  of  the  native  wild  plum 
is  used  as  a  nurse  crop  in  the  shelter-belts  it  will  often 
return  good  crops  of  fruit  for  perhaps  ten  years,  which, 
while  inferior  to  our  cultivated  kinds,  is  exceedingly  valu- 
able for  culinary  purposes  and  appreciated  by  every  farm 
household. 


CHAPTER  V. 
FOREST  REGENERATION  AND  TREATMENT. 

THE  timber  lands  of  this  country  should,  as  a  rule,  be 
managed  so  as  to  get  the  greatest  cash  returns  from  them, 
for  that  only  is  practical  forestry  which  has  this  funda- 
mental feature  always  in  view.  Our  virgin  forests  have 
contained,  and  those  remaining  now  contain,  a  large  per- 
centage of  trees  past  their  prime  and  losing  in  value  each 
year  they  stand.  Such  forest  products  should  be  worked 
up  as  soon  as  a  good  market  is  found  for  them.  In  virgin 
forests  there  is  no  increase,  the  annual  growth  being  just 
balanced  by  the  annual  decay  under  normal  conditions. 

The  Cultivation  of  Trees  on  timber  lands  in  this  section 
has  never  received  much  attention,  and  the  only  data  as  to 
the  rate  of -increase  that  we  have  to  follow  are  what  can  be 
obtained  from  the  native  forests,  and  these  are  for  this 
reason  only  approximately  correct.  In  European  countries 
and  elsewhere  it  has  been  proved  by  long  experience  that 
f  more  timber  is  grown  per  acre,  and  that  the  growth  is  much 
!  more  rapid,  on  land  where  some  attention  is  given  to  sys- 
tematic forestry  than  on  that  which  is  left  to  itself,  and  it 
will  seem  reasonable  to  believe  this  when  we  consider  that 
much  of  the  energy  of  trees  may  be  expended  in  fierce  com- 
petition with  neighbors,  which  may  weaken  them  all  and 
perhaps  bring  about  unhealthy  conditions,  and  that  natural 
forest  land  is  generally  unevenly  stocked  with  trees,  many 
of  which  are  rotton  or  otherwise  defective,  and  often  with 
those  that  are  not  the  most  profitable  kinds  to  grow.  In 

61 


62  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

the  cultivated  forests,  unnecessary  crowding  is  prevented 
by  judicious  thinning,  and  the  land  is  kept  evenly  and  com- 
pletely stocked  with  the  most  profitable  kinds. 

Succession  of  Tree-Growth  is  an  expression  sometimes 
used  as  though  there  were  a  natural  rotation  of  trees  on  the 
land.  There  is  nothing  of  the  sort.  Sometimes  hard 
woods  will  follow  pine,  or  the  pine  the  hard  woods,  where 
the  two  were  mixed  at  the  time  of  cutting  and  there 
was  a  young  growth  of  one  or  the  other  kind  which  had 
a  chance  to  grow  when  its  competitor  wras  removed.  Where 
land  is  severely  burned  after  being  cut  over,  the  trees 
that  show  first  are  generally  the  kinds  with  seeds  that 
float  long  distances  in  the  wind,  such  as  Poplar  and  Birch, 
or  those  having  fruits  especially  liked  by  birds,  such  as 
the  Bird  Cherry,  which  is  very  widely  distributed.  These 
show  first  on  account  of  getting  started  first.  The  Pine 
and  the  other  trees  may  come  in  later  owing  to  their  being 
seeded  later,  or  owing  to  the  later  advent  of  conditions 
favorable  to  their  germination  and  growth.  It  may  hap- 
pen in  the  case  of  burnt-over  pine  land  that  pine  seed  is 
distributed  over  it  the  first  year  after  it  is  burned,  but 
owing  to  there  being  no  protection  from  the  sun  the  young 
seedlings  of  White  and  Norway  Pine,  which  are  very  deli- 
cate, are  destroyed.  After  a  young  growth  of  Poplars 
has  appeared  the  pine  seed  may  find  just  the  right  con- 
ditions for  growth  for  a  few  years  and  finally  get  ahead 
of  the  Poplars  and  crowd  them  out,  while  in  the  meantime 
it  is  being  much  improved  by  the  presence  of  the  Poplars, 
which  grow  rapidly  and  force  the  Pines  to  make  a  tall 
growth.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  Poplars,  Birches, 
and  other  trees  and  shrubs  and  even  weeds  may  sometimes 
make  so  strong  a  growth  as  to  kill  out  the  young  Pinp 
seedlings  if  they  are  not  sufficiently  well  established  at  tne 
time  the  mature  growth  is  cut. 

Regeneration  is  a  term  commonly  used  in  forestry  to 


[To  face  page  62.J 


FIG.  8. — Virgin  Forest.     White  and  Red  Pine  mixed.     Near  Mille 
Lacs,  Minnesota.     Good  Natural  Regeneration. 


FOEEST   REGENERATION   AND   TREATMENT.  03 

signify  the  renewal  of  forest  trees  upon  the  land.  It  is 
a  convenient  term  and  well  worthy  of  general  introduction 
into  the  forest  literature  of  this  country.  The  different 
forms  of  regeneration  may  be  referred  to  as  (1)  regenera- 
tion by  natural  seeding;  (2)  regeneration  by  artificial 
seeding;  (3)  regeneration  by  sprouts  and  suckers  (i.e. 
coppice);  (4)  regeneration  by  planting  seedlings;  (5)  re- 
generation by  planting  cuttings.  The  method  of  regen- 
eration best  adapted  for  one  section  may  not  be  at  all 
fitted  for  another  under  different  conditions,  and  often 
it  is  best  to  combine  two  or  more  of  the  different  forms 
of  regeneration. 

Regeneration  by  Seed.  Where  natural  regeneration  oy 
seed  can  be  easily  brought  about,  it  is  generally  the  best 
practice.  This  is  especially  true  in  sections  where  timber 
is  comparatively  cheap,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  this 
country.  It  may  be  greatly  assisted  by  stirring  the  sur- • 
face  of  the  soil  in  good  seed  years  and  in  other  ways  bring- 
ing about  conditions  conducive  to  the  germination  and 
'growth  of  the  seeds.  Where  it  is  practicable  to  use  it, 
a  disk  harrow  is  an  admirable  implement  for  breaking  up 
the  soil  so  as  to  allow  the  germination  of  seeds.  Where 
a  disk  harrow  cannot  be  used  to  advantage,  and  it  can 
seldom  be  so  used  on  new  land  in  this  country,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  use  a  drag  made  by  tying  together  several  oak 
branches  or  small  logs.  Good  seed  years  do  not  occur 
very  often  in  our  most  desirable  species,  and  it  is  very 
important  to  take  advantage  of  these  good  years  when 
they  do  come.  At  such  times  it  is  often  a  good  practice 
to  make  extra  cuttings  in  order  to  let  in  light  and  air,  as 
well  as  to  stir  the  soil  and  so  make  it  possible  to  secure  a 
good  catch  of  the  seed. 

The  methods  adopted  to  secure  natural  regeneration  by 
seed  may  be  divided  into  three  systems,  each  of  which 
may  be  best  adapted  to  some  special  Conditions.  These 


04 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


are  known  (1)  as  the  Selection  Method,  (2)  as  the  Strip 
Method,  and  (3)  as  the  Group  Method. 

The  Selection  Method  refers  to  the  cutting  of  the  mature 
trees  and  to  the  removal  of  inferior  trees  to  make  room 
for  the  better  kinds.  In  this  system  much  care  should 
be  exercised  to  prevent  the  growth  of  grass;  which  gen- 
erally comes  in  when  the  cutting  is  done  more  rapidly 
than  the  seeding  trees  can  seed  the  bare  land.  On  the 


FIG.  9. — Trees  with  branches  cut  off  before  falling,  so  as  to  prevent 
injury  to  young  growth  around  them. 

other  hand,  it  is  just  as  important  to  exercise  care  that 
the  young  seedlings  which  have  started  have  sufficient 
light  so  that  they  can  make  a  good  growth  and  not  be 
shaded  out  by  the  older  trees.  The  removal  of  a  single 
tree  often  lets  in  so  very  little  light  that  seedlings  cannot 
get  a  good  start.  On  this  account  the  group  method  is 
probably  best  adapted  for  general  use. 


FOKEST   REGENERATION   AND   TREATMENT.  65 

Strip  Method  is  a  term  that  is  applied  to  the  system 
where  the  trees  are  removed  in  narrow  strips,  across  which 
the  remaining  older  trees  can  easily  scatter  their  seed 
The  best  width  of  strips  will  depend  on  the  species  and 
the  local  conditions.  Some  who  advocate  this  method 
claim  that  the  strips  should  not  be  wider  than  the  height 
of  the  trees,  while  others  would  allow  strips  three  or  four 
times  the  height  in  the  case  of  the  Elm,  Maples,  and  Pine, 
and  in  the  case  of  Birch  even  eight  times  may  not  be  too 
much.  Such  strips  should  generally  begin  on  the  side 
opposite  from  the  prevailing  winds  at  seeding  time,  so 
the  seed  will  be  blown  onto  the  denuded  land.  In  the 
case  of  hillsides  the  strips  should  begin  on  the  lower 
slopes,  and  the  work  be  continued  towards  the  summit  so 
as  to  assist  the  distribution  of  seed. 

The  Group  Method  is  a  system  of  cutting  strips  suc- 
cessively on  the  inside  of  certain  groups.  This  may  be 
termed  a  natural  method,  and  for  general  use,  especially 
in  mixed  woods  and  where  the  land  and  conditions  are 
quite  variable,  it  is  much  the  best.  It  gives  a  chance 
to  adapt  the  method  of  cutting  to  the  different  species 
and  to  the  different  conditions  which  may  be  found  in 
the  forest.  For  instance,  a  tamarack  swamp ,  dry  knoll 
covered  with  oak,  a  steep  hillside,  and  level,  rich,  rocky 
land,  each  covered  with  the  trees  peculiar  to  it,  would 
very  likely  all  be  included  in  almost  any  forest  tract  of 
any  considerable  size  in  the  Northern  States,  and  each 
portion  should  receive  special  treatment.  We  can  begin 
with  one  group  or  several,  and  we  can  start  our  re- 
generation in  each  group  perhaps  where  there  is 
already  a  good  growth  of  young  tree?.  In  fact  this 
system  gives  us  a  chance  to  begin  regeneration  where 
the  greatest  necessity  or  the  best  chance  for  it  already 
exists. 


GC 


PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


The  size  of  the  openings  will  depend  here  as  in  the 
strip  method  on  the  species  grown  and  natural  con- 
ditions. Generally  the  first  openings  will  be  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  acre  or  more,  and  the  strips  taken 


FIG  10. — Diagram  illustrating  the  system  followed  in  the  group 
method  of  cutting.  Cuttings  are  begun  at  points  marked  1,  and 
are  gradually  extended  bv  successive  cuttings  as  indicated  by 
Figs.  2,  3,  4,"  and  5.  After  Schlich. 

around  them  should  in  width  not  greatly  exceed  the 
height  of  the  trees  in  the  strips  next  to  be  cut.  Succes- 
sive strips  should  be  cut  only  when  the  previous  strips 
had  become  well  stocked  with  trees,  i.e.  when  regenera- 
tion is  accomplished. 


FOREST  REGENERATION  AND  TREATMENT. 


67 


Of  course  the  regeneration  in  any  case  should  be  man- 
aged with  the  same  care  that  should  be  given  to  any 
well-managed  forest  to  bring  about  the  predominance 
of  the  most  valuable  kinds  under  the  best  light  and  soil 
conditions. 

Regeneration  by  Artificial  Seeding.  Occasionally  it 
may  be  desirable  to  sow  seed  in  woodlands.  This  is  es- 
pecially so  in  the  case  of  some  of  our  nut-trees  such  as 
Black  Walnut,  Butternut,  and  Oaks,  which  readily  renew 


FIG.  11. — Tree  seeds  sown  in  patches  in  old  woodland. 

themselves  by  such  means.  In  the  case  of  Pine  and 
Spruce,  however,  success  is  quite  uncertain  under  such 
treatment.  Perhaps  it  is  most  certain  with  Pine  and 
Spruce  where  it  is  practicable  to  furrow  out  with  the 
plough,  as  for  instance  it  might  be  on  some  of  the  sandy 
lands  of  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  where  furrows  might 
be  run  between  the  trees  or  the  land  loosened  in  patches 
with  a  hoe.  In  this  case  the  standing  trees  afford  the 
proper  shade  conditions  for  the  seedlings.  In  the  case 


68 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


of  clear  fields  it  is  quite  a  simple  matter  to  sow  the  seed 
in  furrows. 

Sowing  in  Patches.  It  is  quite  common  in  some  of 
the  European  forests  to  see  patches  of  land,  perhaps 
four  feet  square,  at  twenty-foot  intervals,  which  have 
been  stripped  of  their  mossy  cover  and  sown  to  seed. 
These  afford  a  sort  of  nursery  throughout  the  forest,  from 
which  seedlings  may  be  transplanted  and  on  which  a 


FIG.  12. — Good  natural  regeneration  of. Spruce  in  Manitoba. 

number  of  seedling  plants  are  left  and  form  a  good  forest 
cover. 

Sowing  in  Clear  Fields.  Pine  and  other  seeds  are 
sometimes  sown  in  clear  fields  with  oats,  when  the  straw 
protects  from  the  sun  in  summer  and  the  stubble  holds 
the  snow  and  acts  as  winter  protection.  Seed  cf  Ash, 
Maple,  Elm,  and  some  other  trees  may  sometimes  be  sown 
in  the  hills  with  corn  to  advantage  in  prairie-planting, 


FOREST  REGENERATION  AND  TREATMENT.      69 

and  Willow  cuttings  may  also  be  used  in  the  same  way 
or  with  beans. 

Natural  Reseeding  of  the  land  is  almost  the  only  practi- 
cal means  of  restocking  cheap  forest  land,  as  other  methods 
are  too  expensive.  It  generally  takes  place  readily,  and 
the  only  reason  why  it  is  not  more  successful  is  the  fre- 
quent destruction  of  the  young  seedlings  by  fires  and 
cattle.  The  small  crooked  branching  Pine  and  other 


FIG.  13. — A  fine  young  growth  of  Norway  Spruce  (Picea  excelsa)  in 
the  forest  garden  of  the  "Giessen  Forestry  School"  in  Hessen, 
Germany.  A  good  illustration  of  the  results  of  regeneration  by 
planting  seedlings. 

seeding  trees  that  are  always  left  by  lumbermen  in  their 
operations  here,  and  generally  considered  worthless,  per- 
form a  very  important  work  in  producing  seed,  and  it  is 
a  pity  that  there  are  not  more  such  trees  left  to  produce 
seed  for  our  cut-over  lands.  When  such  trees  escape 


70  PRINCIPLES   OP   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

the  first  burning  after  the  land  is  cut  over,  they  often 
remain  for  twenty  years  doing  their  blessed  work  of  dis- 
tributing seed  each  year,  and  when  the  conditions  exist 
for  germination  and  growth,  the  seed  grows  and  lives. 
Sometimes  where  such  trees  are  not  left  by  lumbermen, 
or  where  they  have  been  destroyed  by  fire,  it  has  taken 
twenty  years  to  get  the  land  properly  reseeded  to  White 
Pine  by  the  slow  process  of  seeding  from  trees  at  a  dis- 
tance of  half  a  mile  or  more. 

'  The  Covering  of  Tree  Seeds  in  Woodland,  whether  the 
seeds  are  sown  naturally  or  artificially,  can  often  be  best 
accomplished  by  stirring  up  the  soil  with  a  strong  harrow 
or  a  brush  drag  made  of  the  branches  of  an  Oak  or  other 
tree  having  strong  wood.  This  may  sometimes  be  done 
most  advantageously  before  the  seeds  fall,  and  at  other 
times -after  they  have  fallen.  Where  the  soil  is  made 
loose  and  the  forest  floor  is  broken  up  before  the  seeds 
fall,  they  are  generally  sufficiently  covered  by  wind  and 
rain.  They  may  sometimes  be  covered  most  satisfacto- 
rily by  driving  a  flock  of  sheep  over  the  land  after  the  seed 
has  fallen,  the  feet  of  the  sheep  pressing  the  seed  into 
the  ground. 

Regeneration  by  Planting  Seedlings.  This  form  of 
regeneration  is  practised  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
sections  where  timber  is  high  in  price.  It  is  often  the 
most  economical  way  of  securing  a  stock  of  coniferous 
trees  upon  the  land.  Under  the  conditions  which  fre- 
quently prevail  on  our  cut-over  land,  there  is  very  little 
chance  for  natural  or  artificial  regeneration  of  desirable 
kinds  by  seed,  owing  to  the  fact  that  all  the  seed-pro- 
ducing trees  were  cut  when  the  land  was  logged,  or  have 
since  been  destroyed  by  fire  and  the  ground  covered  by 
a  growth  of  weeds  and  inferior  trees;  but  seedling  Pines 
can  often  be  set  out  at  intervals  of  perhaps  ten  feet  apart 
each  way  where  they  would  be  sufficiently  crowded  by 


[To  face  page  70.1 


FIG.  14. — Wood  road  and  firebreak,  Giessen,  Germany,  in  Norway 
Spruce  Forest. 


/ 


FOKEST  REGENEKATION  AXD  TKEATMENT. 


71 


the  weeds,.  Poplar,  and  other  fast-growing  trees,  so  that 
they  would  take  on  an  upright  form  quite  free  from  side 
branches  until  their  tops  interlaced,  after  which  they 
would  crowd  one  another.  Such  planting  can  often  be 
done  at  an  expense  of  about  two  dollars  per  acre  in  ad- 
dition to  the  cost  of  the  seedlings,  if  the  work  is  done 


FIG.   If). — Old  Pine  cuttings  after  being  once  burned  over. 

with  a  mattock.  Under  favorable  conditions,  the  work 
can  be  done  for  half  this  figure.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
expect  that  a  man  and  boy  can  plant  1,000  seedlings  in 
a  day  of  ten  hours  under  reasonably  favorable  condi- 
tions. It  is  necessary  for  the  success  of  such  work  that 
weeds  be  prevented  from  smothering  the  trees,  which  they 


72 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


are  liable  to  do  if  left  without  care  for  the  first  few  years. 
Until  the  seedlings  get  well  started,  and  to  prevent  this, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  back  the  crowding  plants  every 
summer  for  a  few  years. 

Old  Fields  that  for  any  reason  it  may  not  be  desirable 
to  plough  entirely  can  be  successfully  planted  by  furrowing 
out  in  autumn  where  it  is  desirable  to  plant,  and  in  spring 


FIG.  16. — Showing  method  of  planting 
in  furrows  on  old  hillside  pastures. 
Furrows  are  made  in  autumn  and 
extend  across  the  slope  to  prevent 
washing.  These  should  be  made 
as  level  as  possible. 


planting  on  the  edge  of  the  furrow  where  the  soil  has 
fallen  from  the  furrow  slice.  In  the  case  of  hillsides  of 
this  kind  that  are  liable  to  wash,  the  furrows  should  run 
across  the  slope  and  be  made  nearly  level  and  will  thus 
hold  water  and  prevent  drying  out.  (Fig.  16.) 


FOREST   REGENERATION    AND   TREATMENT.  73 

Mound-Planting  is  a  term  which  signifies  the  planting 
of  trees  on  mounds  or  on  the  surface  of  the  land.  This 
is  sometimes  done  on  wet  lands  for  the  purpose  of  getting 
the  roots  above  standing  water,  and  it  is  a  practice  which 
can  be  followed  in  the  case  of  several  trees  that  do  well 
upon  rather  moist  soil,  although  they  may  die  if  put  at 
once  into  standing  water  when  young. 

Regeneration  by  Cuttings.  There  are  few  trees  that 
can  be  grown  in  general  practice  from  cuttings,  but  it  is 
the  best  way  to  start  Willows,  since  seedlings  of  them 
are  generally  quite  difficult  to  obtain.  Some  species  of 
the  Poplar  can  also  be  grown  to  best  advantage  in  this 
way. 

Regeneration  by  Sprouts  and  Suckers.  Some  trees, 
such  as  the  Willow,  Poplars,  Oaks,  Chestnuts,  and  Maples 
renew  themselves  very  readily  by  sprouts  and  suckers. 
Land  that  is  managed  on  this  plan  for  regeneration  is 
termed  COPPICE.  With  the  exception  of  the  Willow 
and  possibly  one  or  two  other  trees,  the  growth  from 
coppice  is  not  so  large  as  that  from  seedlings,  and  it  is 
seldom  employed  for  other  purposes  than  the  production 
of  firewood.  In  order  to  get  the  best  growth  in  this  way, 
the  trees  should  be  cut  close  to  the  ground  when  they 
are  dormant,  and  the  stumps  left  highest  in  the  centre, 
so  they  will  tend  to  shed  water  and  not  rot.  The  ad- 
vantage of  cutting  close  to  the  ground  is  that  the  sprouts 
that  come  out  from  the  trunk  soon  get  roots  of  their  own, 
which  makes  them  more  durable  than  when  they  depend 
entirely  upon  the  old  stump  roots,  and  they  are  much  less 
liable  to  be  broken  off  in  high  winds. 

Pollarding  consists  in  cutting  back  the  side  branches 
of  a  tree  or  cutting  off  the  main  stem  at  a  few  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  branches  may  be  cut  off  close 
to  the  main  stem  or  at  a  short  distance  from  it,  the 
latter  method  being  preferable.  New  shoots  spring  from 


74  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

the  cuts,  and  these  are  again  cut  when  of  suitable  size. 
What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  season  and  manner 
of  cutting  in  the  previous  paragraphs  is  practically  true 
here.  This  process  is  mostly  used  in  the  case  of  Willows 
and  Poplars  to  obtain  material  for  basket-work,  small 
poles,  fuel,  etc. 

Time  of  Rotation  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  the  age  to 
which  trees  are  grown.  The  length  of  this  time  will 
depend  on  the  species  and  on  the  conditions.  For  some 


FIG.  17. — Showing  proper  way  of  cutting  Pollards  and  growth  after 
same  has  been  cut. 


species  not  less  than  eighty  years  should  be  allowed  for 
full  maturity,  while  still  others  may  be  successfully  worked 
on  a  thirty-year  rotation  period.  It  is  not  used  in  the 
same  sense  as  in  ordinary  agricultural  operations,  where 
it  signifies  frequent  changes  of  the  crop  for  several  years 
with  a  view  to  getting  the  most  out  of  the  soil.  Since 
trees  do  not  impoverish  the  soil,  but  improve  it,  there  is  no 


[To  face  page  75.J 


FIG.  18. — Crowded  and  open  grown  Norway  Pine.  Crowded  trees  form 
the  most  good  timber  in  the  shortest  time.  Open  grown  trees  have 
many  side  branches,  and  consequently  form  poor  timber. 


FOREST    REGENERATION    AND    TREATMENT.  75 

necessity  for  any  such  method  of  rotation  in  forestry 
as  there  is  in  agriculture. 

Pruning  of  Forest  Trees  is  generally  an  expensive  opera- 
tion and  little  is  required  if  trees  are  properly  crowded 
when  young,  so  that  they  take  on  an  upright  form  free 
from  side  branches.  If  they  are  not  crowded  when  young, 
many  side  branches  are  formed,  which  generally  die  out 
when  the  trees  get  large  enough  to  shade  all  the  ground.  In 
some  cases  these  dead  branches  drop  quickly  to  the  ground, 
and  in  others  they  remain  for  years,  producing  knots 
and  irregularities  in  the  wood  formed  in  the  meantime 
and  should  be  removed.  Trees  grown  in  the  open  retain 
their  lower  branches  more  or  less  throughout  life,  and 
they  produce  in  consequence  timber  of  inferior  value  as 
compared  with  trees  grown  in  properly  crowded  woods. 

Large  wounds  made  by  cutting  off  green  branches 
should  be  painted  with  some  protective  covering  such 
as  white  lead.  It  is  often  desirable  to  remove  dead 
branches,  and  it  is  the  practice  to  do  so  in  some  of  the 
plantings  of  White  Pine  that  have  been  made  in  New 
England.  It  is  said  that  the  lumber  there  is  so  greatly 
improved  by  so  doing  that  the  operation  is  a  paying  one. 
But  under  ideal  conditions  for  the  development  of  timber 
trees  very  little  is  gained  by  pruning. 

The  Young  Growth  is  Often  Injured  in  ordinary  lum- 
bering operations  by  the  felling  of  the  trees,  which  bend 
them  to  the  ground  and  often  break  them.  Where  special 
care  is  desired  to  protect  the  young  growth  it  may  be  de- 
sirable to  lop  off  the  branches  before  felling.  This  is 
practised  to  some  extent  where  forests  are  very  valuable. 

The  Small  Dead  Twigs  on  such  trees  as  Spruce,  and 
also  the  shrubbery  which  may  surround  them,  are  often 
a  very  valuable  protection  against  sun-scald.  This 
also  protects  from  drying  winds,  which  would  otherwise 
perhaps  sweep  through  the  forests  and  do  them  injury. 


76  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

Forest  trees  seldom  do  best  where  they  are  subject  to 
a  strong  draft  of  wind  around  the  trunks.  While  under 
some  conditions  it  may  be  desirable  to  remove  the  dead 
branches  from  trees,  yet  even  if  it  is  decided  to  do  this 
in  the  interior  of  the  forest,  it  is  generally  best  to  leave 
the  borders  without  such  pruning  in  order  to  protect  it 
from  drafts. 

Forest  Weed  is  a  term  used  to  signify  any  growth  that 
may  occur  in  forests  which  crowds  the  other  growth  and 
so  prevents  it  from  developing  to  the  best  advantage. 
It  may  apply  to  raspberry  bushes,  hazel  brush,  poplars, 
and  other  similar  materials  which  often  come  in  our 
forests  in  the  early  growth  of  the  plantation;  or  even 
to  large  inferior  trees  which  are  in  the  way  of  the  proper 
development  of  the  better  species.  But  a  tree  may  at 
one  period  of  its  growth  be  of  much  value  in  a  forest  in 
producing  shade  and  acting  as  a  nurse  tree,  while  later 
on  in  its  growth,  after  its  usefulness  has  been  completed, 
it  may  be  regarded  as  a  weed. 

Thinning  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  forester's 
art  in  securing  good  timber  and  in  reseeding  the  land. 
The  ideal  condition  in  the  life  of  timber  trees  is  to  secure 
a  natural  crop  of  seedlings  so  crowded  when  young  as 
to  increase  very  rapidly  in  height  and  produce  slender 
trunks  free  from  side  branches.  When  this  crowding 
has  gone  far  enough  the  less  valuable  and  weaker  trees 
should  be  removed  to  give  the  better  trees  sufficient 
room  for  their  crowns  to  develop.  These  remaining  trees 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  will  again  crowd  one  another 
too  severely,  and  this  process  of  removing  poorer  trees 
must  then  be  repeated.  Then  when  the  final  stand  of 
trees  is  approaching  maturity,  thinning  should  be  com- 
menced to  let  in  light  and  air  to  produce  the  conditions 
under  which  seedlings  develop  to  best  advantage. 

Heavy  thinning  should  be  practised  only  after  very 


FOREST  REGENERATION"  AND  TREATMENT.      77 

careful  consideration.  It  is  seldom  desirable,  as  it  lets 
in  much  sunlight  and  may  encourage  a  growth  of  grass. 
Where  natural  regeneration  is  practised,  only  such  open- 
ings should  be  made  as  will  be  shortly  covered  with  valu- 
able species. 

Important  Principles  that  Should  be  Remembered: 
(1)  That  increase  of  wood'  is  proportional  to  leaf  surface 
and  therefore  the  lands  should  be  kept  as  nearly  as  possible 
covered  with  a  canopy  of  leaves,  which  should  be  on 
trees  that  are  valuable  for  their  timber.  (2)  That  leaves 
need  light;  therefore  partly  shaded  branches  form  but 
little  and  imperfect  wood,  and  those  that  are  very  heavily 
shaded  die  out;  crowding  prevents  the  formation  of 
branches  on  trees  and  is  important  in  securing  the  best 
timber.  The  amount  of  waste  branchv/ood  varies  greatly, 
it  being  very  much  in  trees  that  are  entirely  open  grown, 
and  very  little  in  trees  that  have  been  severely  crowded. 
But  as  overcrowding  causes  decay,  it  is  important  to 
do  the  thinning  as  soon  as  the  tree  has  taken  on  a  proper 
form.  Crowding  on  one  side  causes  crooks,  and  these 
can  be  prevented  by  cutting  off  the  crowding  tree  or 
branch. 

Waste  in  Forests  occurs,  as  has  been  partially  stated, 
in  branchwood,  crooks,  rot,  and  in  growing  of  the  kinds 
of  trees  that  are  not  marketable.  The  kinds  that  are 
marketable  depend  largely  on  the  demand.  In  consider- 
ing this  subject  it  is  best  to  be  conservative  and  to  select 
kinds  that  are  of  stable  value  and  not  likely  to  go  out 
of  fashion.  Since  crowding  is  best  done  by  small  trees 
among  the  large  timber  trees,  they  should  be  of  a  kind 
that  are  marketable  when  small. 

Much  waste  in  timber  is  caused  by  cutting  trees  when 
small.  The  amount  of  waste  in  the  shafts  of  straight 
trees,  excluding  trunks,  branches,  and  bark,  may  vary 
from  eighty-one  per  cent,  in  a  tree  eight  inches  in  dian> 


78  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

eter  and  ninety  feet  high  to  six  per  cent,  in  a  tree  forty 
inches  in  diameter  on  the  stump  and  one  hundred  feet 
high.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  is  great  loss  from 
cutting  trees  when  small,  especially  if  they  are  growing 
rapidly. 

Improvement  Cuttings  is  a  term  used  to  signify  an 
improvement  of  forests  by  cutting  out  inferior  and  crowd- 
ing trees.  This  is  a  very  important  matter  in  getting 
almost  any  forest  tract  into  a  condition  where  it  can  be 
managed  to  best  advantage  under  the  group,  strip,  or 
other  systems.  Generally  it  will  at  first  consist  in  remov- 
ing the  dead,  rotten,  and  mature  trees  and  those  of  inferior 
species,  and  so  give  better  opportunity  for  the  more  valua- 
ble kinds.  This  is  a  matter  that  calls  for  much  good  judg- 
ment. Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  make  openings 
so  large  but  what  they  will  shortly  be  occupied  by  seed- 
lings of  valuable  trees.  Where  large  openings  are  made 
they  are  apt  to  become  covered  with  grass,  which  is  a 
great  detriment  to  any  forest  growth  and  always  indicates 
that  the  cutting  has  been  done  too  rapidly  for  best  results. 

The  Axe  and  Saw,  then,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  fore- 
going paragraphs,  furnish  the  most  important  means 
when  used  judiciously  in  securing  the  best  growth  of  tim- 
ber in  forests  of  this  country  and  the  proper  succession 
of  growth  on  forest  land. 

The  Farm  Wood-lot  is  a  customary  feature  on  many 
farms  in  the  Northeastern  States.  As  a  rule  it  occupies 
land  that  is  of  very  little  value  for  any  other  purpose. 
It  is  generally  not  managed  at  all,  but  left  to  look  after 
itself,  and  often  it  is  pastured.  It  is  expected  to  furnish 
firewood,  posts,  and  poles  and  an  occasional  stick  of  dimen- 
sion stuff.  Too  often  the  best  is  cut  and  the  poorest  left 
to  grow.  Under  such  rough  treatment  the  wood-lot  be- 
comes stocked  with  an  inferior  growth  that  is  of  little 
value  except  for  firewood,  and  it  does  not  produce  as  much 


FOREST  REGENERATION  AND  TREATMENT.      79 

of  that  as  it  might  under  a  different  system  of  manage- 
ment. 

Improving  the  Wood-lot.  The  general  rules  laid  down 
for  the  management  of  forests  will  apply  here.  The 
cattle  should  be  kept  out,  so  as  to  give  the  young  seedlings 
a  chance  to  grow.  Improvement  cuttings  should  be 
introduced  with  a  view  of  getting  rid  of  the  crooked  and 
mature  trees  and  those  of  inferior  species,  and  of  en- 
couraging a  growth  of  young  seedlings  of  valuable  kinds. 
Similar  treatment  should  be  given  the  sugar-orchard, 
in  which  the  old  heart  rotten  and  weak  trees  should  be 
gradually  removed  to  make  place  for  thrifty  saplings 
as  the  latter  need  the  room. 

Osier  Willows  is  a  term  that  is  applied  to  a  variety  of 
Willows  which  are  grown  for  their  twigs,  which  are  used 
for  basket-making.  The  plantations  made  for  this  pur- 
pose are  termed  osier  holts.  The  growing  of  osiers  has 
not  been  carried  on  to  any  great  extent  in  this  country, 
but  they  are  generally  imported.  At  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
and  near  a  few  other  large  cities,  it  has  reached  a 
considerable  degree  of  development.  A  large  amount  of 
these  osiers  are  imported  into  this  country  each  year, 
and  an  immense  amount  of  willow  basket  material  is 
used.  The  price  paid  for  the  rods,  when  of.  a  proper  length 
and  in  good  condition,  is  about  fifteen  dollars  a  ton, 
green.  The  yield  per  acre  around  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  is 
about  four  tons  of  green  rods,  but  occasionally  as  high 
as  eight  tons  has  been  obtained.  Dried  peeled  rods  are 
worth  somewhere  about  sixty  dollars  per  ton.  In  order 
to  facilitate  peeling,  which  in  this  case  is  termed  strip- 
ping, the  rods  are  steamed  until  the  bark  comes  off  easily. 
These  are  not  as  white,  however,  as  those  which  are  sap- 
peeled  in  the  spring,  but  the  latter  are  not  as  durable  as 
steam-peeled  rods. 

The  best  soil  for  the  growing  of  basket  Willows  is  a 


80 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


deep,  sandy  soil,  drained  yet  moist.  If  water  for  irri- 
gation can  be  commanded,  so  much  the  better,  but  the 
basket  Willows  will  prosper  on  even  rather  chy  soil  of 
good  quality,  but  do  not  grow  as  fast  as  on  moist  soil. 
Avoid  locations  where  stagnant  water  stands  in  summer. 
Among  the  best  situations  is  along  the  rivers  and  brooks 
that  pass  through  a  level  country,  and  on  small  islands 
which  frequently  are  found  in  the  midst  of  streams,  or 


FIG.  19.— Showing  Osier  Willow  Holt  partly  cut  and  part  standing. 


swales  or  hollows.  If  these  places  are  occasionally  quite 
wet  in  winter,  it  does  not  seem  to  injure  seriously  the 
basket  Willows. 

In  preparing  the  soil  for  this  purpose  care  should  be 
taken  to  make  it  very  rich,  and  if  necessary  for  best  growth, 
it  should  be  heavily  manured  with  stable  manure  and 
as  carefully  prepared  as  if  for  a  crop  of  corn.  The  best 


FOREST   REGENERATION    AND   TREATMENT.  81 

time  for  planting  is  in  the  late  autumn,  or  very  early  in  the 
spring,  and  the  best  cuttings  are  those  about  twelve  inches 
long.  Put  these  cuttings  in  so  that  their  tops  are  even  with 
the  ground,  but  do  not  cover  the  tops  with  earth.  Some 
growers  prefer  to  set  the  cuttings  about  four  inches  apart 
in  rows  twenty  inches  apart  for  best  results.  This  gives 
a  thick,  close  growth,  which  sufficiently  shades  the  soil 
between  the  rows  that  weeds  cannot  grow  there.  If 
the  plants  should  prove  to  be  too  thick,  every  alternate 
one  can  be  grubbed  out  after  the  third  year.  This  method 
will  require  about  65,000  cuttings  to  the  acre.  Other 
growers  prefer  to  set  twelve  inches  apart  in  rows  three 
feet  apart.  This  gives  a  chance  to  work  between  the  rows 
with  a  horse,  which  is  quite  an  advantage  under  some 
conditions.  This  method  requires  about  15,000  cutr- 
tings  per  acre.  (See  figure  25.) 

On  land  that  is  wet  late  in  autumn  the  Willows  are 
liable  to  grow  too  long,  and  not  ripen  their  shoots,  which 
is  an  important  consideration  in  the  growing  of  basket 
Willows,  since  if  the  shoots  are  not  ripened  at  the  time 
growth  ceases,  they  are  worthless  for  basket  purposes, 
being  soft  and  brittle.  The  rods  should  be  cut  the  first 
year,  even  if  of  no  value,  for  if  the  cutting  is  delayed  until 
the  second  year,  the  plants  will  have  branched,  and  will 
produce  much  less  valuable  material.  The  rods  should 
be  cut  as  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  possible.  They 
should  then  be  tied  in  bundles  about  ten  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and,  if  it  is  intended  to  sap-peal  them,  these  bundles 
should  be  placed  in  running  water,  standing  upright, 
until  the  leaves  or  sprouts  appear  in  the  spring,  when  they 
should  be  ready  to  peel.  This  method  of  peeling  is 
termed  sap-peeling.  When  it  is  intended  to  remove 
the  bark  by  steaming  or  boiling,  the  bundles  may  be 
set  up  anywhere  until  dry,  when  they  may  be  stored 
in  racks  or  in  covered  sheds  until  wanted.  Rods  thus 


82  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

treated  will  be  of  a  darker  color  than  those  peeled  in  the 
spring  after  the  sap  has  started,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  wood  is  stained  by  the  coloring  matter  in  the  bark, 
which  is  dissolved  and  taken  up  by  the  wood.  These 
dark-colored  rods,  however,  make  the  most  valuable 
baskets.  Willows  should  never  be  cut  when  the  sap  is 
flowing,  as  the  material  is  poor,  being  too  soft  and  turning 
black  when  peeled.  Besides,  they  injure  the  plants  by 
robbing  them  of  their  yearly  supply  of  root  nourishment. 
The  cutting  should  always  be  done  carefully,  and  in  such 
a  manner  as  not  to  split  or  mutilate  the  stocks.  The 
peeling  is  done  by  pulling  the  rods  through  a  springy 
wooden  fork,  shaped  like  a  clothes-pin,  but  larger,  and 
with  blunt  edges  inside.  This  presses  against  the  rod 
and  loosens  the  bark  in  strands  without  injuring  the  wood. 
The  rod  is  afterwards  dried  in  the  open  air  and  put  up 
in  bundles  of  fifty  pounds  for  the  market. 

Peeled  rods  keep  much  better  than  those  left  with 
the  bark  on,  and  this  is  said  to  be  the  most  profitable 
way  in  which  to  market  the  product.  The  Willow  is 
generally  a  healthy  plant,  and  rather  free  from  insect 
enemies  under  ordinary  conditions;  but  when  grown 
in  large  groups  of  pure  Willows,  it  is  occasionally  attacked 
by  rust  and  also  by  insects.  The  leaf-eating  insects 
are  easily  destroyed  by  Paris  green,  used  in  the  same  way 
as  is  common  for  the  destruction  of  the  potato-bug. 

The  Osier  Willow,  which  has  proven  most  productive 
of  the  long,  slender  shoots  so  desirable  for  basket-making, 
is  the  Salix  purpurea,  and  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station  this  has  frequently  made  a  growth  of  six  feet 
long  in  a  season.  It  should  be  understood  by  any  one 
who  undertakes  this  line  of  work  that  long,  slender  rods 
are  desirable,  and  that  one  rod  six  feet  long  may  be  worth 
as  much  as  several  that  are  not  over  three  or  four  feet 
long.  Almost  any  Willow  may  be  used  for  making  the 


FOKEST  REGENERATION  AND  TREATMENT.      83 

common,,  coarse  baskets,  but  for  the  better  class  of  willow 
goods,  the  special  Osier  Willows  should  be  grown.  The 
common  White  Willow  and  also  the  Golden  Willow  pro- 
duce rods  of  fairly  good  quality. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
PROPAGATION. 

Trees   are  Grown   from  Seeds  or  by  Division.     The 

latter  term  includes  increase  by  cuttings,  layers,  buds, 
and  grafts.  Plants  grown  from  seeds  are  generally  more 
vigorous  and  longer-lived  than  those  of  the  same  species 
propagated  in  any  other  way.  Trees  should  be  grown 
from  seeds  when  it  is  practicable  to  do  so,  but  Willows 
and  some  other  trees  are  apparent  exceptions  to  this  rule 
and  seem  to  do  as  well  when  grown  from  cuttings  as  when 
grown  from  seeds.  Varieties  do  not  generally  perpetuate 
their  peculiar  characteristics  when  grown  from  seeds, 
and  must  therefore  be  propagated  by  some  method  of 
division. 

The  Most  Desirable  Trees  from  Which  to  Propagate  are 
those  of  good  form  and  healthy  growth;  the  latter  is  the 
one  most  important  requisite,  especially  if  new  plants 
are  to  be  grown  by  any  method  of  division.  It  is  not 
so  essential  in  selecting  seeds,  as  even  weak  plants  may 
produce  good  seedlings,  but  unhealthy  cuttings,  layers, 
or  grafts  are  of  very  uncertain  growth.  In  general,  it  is 
best  that  the  stock  trees  be  healthy  throughout,  but  a  tree 
may  have  a  rotten  trunk  due  to  some  injury  and  still 
have  perfectly  healthy  branches  and  be  a  desirable  tree 
from  which  to  propagate. 

SEEDS. 

Sources  of  Seeds.  In  growing  trees  from  seeds,  the 
source  of  the  seeds  is  very  important.  It  may  be  given 

84 


PKOPAGATION.  85 

as  a  safe  general  rule  that  seeds  are  most  desirable  which 
come  from  trees  grown  in  as  severe  a  climate  as  that  in 
which  the  seeds  are  to  be  sown.  It  has  been  found  that 
trees  of  Box-elder  and  Red  Cedar  grown  from  seeds  gathered 
in  Missouri  are  not  nearly  as  hardy  in  Minnesota  as  those 
from  seeds  grown  in  that  State.  It  has  also  been  found 
that  seeds  from  the  western  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, where  the  climate  is  very  humid,  produce  trees 
which  are  not  so  well  adapted  to  withstanding  the  con- 
ditions of  the  Central  States  as  trees  grown  from  seeds  from 
the  eastern  slopes,  where  the  summers  are  very  dry  and 
hot  and  the  winters  very  dry  and  cold.  The  climate  of 
our  Western  prairie  States  is  especially  trying  to  trees, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  exercise  much  more  care  in  the 
selection  of  tree  seeds  there  than  it  is  in  the  more 
favored  climate  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  coast 
States. 

There  are  Conditions  Under  Which  Every  Species  of 
Tree  Thrives  Best  and  makes  its  greatest  growth,  but 
the  trees  produced  under  these  conditions  are  not  always 
the  hardiest.  As  they  reach  the  limits  of  their  growth, 
trees  have  a  tendency,  on  account  of  drought  or  cold,  to 
become  smaller,  more  compact  in  form,  and  to  fruit 
younger;  e.g.,  the  Box-elder  is  a  large  tree  in  Kansas  and 
Missouri,  but  as  it  gets  towards  the  Manitoba  line,  we 
find  it  becomes  dwarfed  and  more  bushy  in  habit.  To- 
wards the  southern  limit  of  its  range  the  tree  becomes 
more  open  in  habit  and  more  liable  to  disease.  The 
Scotch  Pine  seeds  imported  into  this  coutnry  are  gener- 
ally saved  from  the  small  scrubby  trees  that  are  found 
in  the  higher  altitudes  of  the  mountains  of  Europe,  because 
such  trees  produce  the  most  seeds  and  they  are  most  easily 
gathered  from  them,  while  seeds  are  seldom  gathered 
from  the  large  timber  trees  of  this  species,  and  it  is  very 
likely  that  this  poor  seed  stock  is  responsible  for  mucb 


86  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

of  the  scrubby  appearance  of  many  Scotch  Pine  planta- 
tions in  this  country. 

Trees  Have  a  Strong  Tendency  to  Perpetuate  Qualities 

which  have  been  developed  in  them  by  climate  and  soil 
conditions.  Hence,  even  though  an  essential  point  in 
considering  the  value  of  any  tree  is  its  hardiness,  the 
question  of  size  is  important  and  should  be  taken  into 
account,  as  we  generally  wish  to  grow  trees  of  as  large 
size  as  practicable.  We  may  conclude,  then,  that  since 
trees  from  a  very  mild  climate  generally  lack  in  hardiness, 
and  those  from  a  very  severe  climate  may  lack  in  size, 
it  is  best  to  procure  seeds  from  the  best  trees  grown  near 
by  or  from  those  grown  under  similar  climatic  conditions 
elsewhere.  It  is  not  generally  necessary  to  limit  this 
range  very  closely,  as  a  hundred  miles  north  or  south  of 
a  given  point  will  seldom  make  much  difference  in  hardi- 
ness, unless  the  climatic  conditions  are  very  dissimilar. 

The  Place  Where  the  Trees  that  we  are  to  Set  Out  are 
Grown  is  not  of  so  great  importance  as  the  source  of  the 
seeds  from  which  they  are  grown;  e.g..  seedlings  of  Red 
Cedar  grown  in  Missouri  from  seeds  of  native  Minnesota 
trees  would  be  safer  to  plant  at  the  extreme  North  than 
seedlings  raised  in  Minnesota  from  the  seeds  of  native 
Missouri  trees. 

Seedling  Variations.  In  our  common  trees  variations 
are  not  sufficiently  marked  but  that  we  think  of  the  trees 
as  coming  true  from  seeds,  and  yet  careful  observation 
will  show  to  any  one  that  each  seedling  plant  is  different 
from  neighboring  plants  of  the  same  species.  Some- 
times a  seedling  will  occur  that  possesses  especially  pleas- 
ing or  curious  characteristics  that  are  very  marked  and 
desirable.  In  such  cases  the  seedling  is  generally  prop- 
agated by  some  method  of  bud-division  and  makes  a 
new  variety.  In  this  way  have  originated  such  highly 
esteemed  kinds  as  Wier's  Cut-leaf  Maple,  which  was  a 


PROPAGATION.  87 

chance  seedling  of  the  Soft  Maple,  the  Weeping  Ameri- 
can Elm,  Cut-leaf  Birch,  Weeping  Mountain  Ash,  Pyram- 
idal Arborvitse,  and  a  host  of  other  kinds  that  are 
propagated  by  bud-division  by  nurserymen.  The  person 
who  is  on  the  lookout  for  these  or  other  variations  will 
have  no  trouble  in  finding  many  that  may  perhaps  be 
worth  naming  and  propagating. 

Gathering  Seeds.  All  kinds  of  seeds  should  be  gath- 
ered when  ripe.  In  some  cases  it  is  best  to  pick  them  from 
the  trees  even  before  they  are  quite  ripe,  after  which  they 
will  ripen  if  kept  dry.  Unripe  seeds  do  not  keep  as  well 
as  perfectly  ripe  seeds.  Most  kinds  of  tree  seeds  are 
most  cheaply  gathered  from  the  ground.  In  some  cases 
this  method  can  be  greatly  facilitated  by  cleaning  up 
the  land  under  the  trees  so  that  it  will  be  smooth  and 
even.  Seeds  of  some  species  'can  often  be  swept  up  at 
little  expense  from  under  trees  growing  along  the  high- 
way. 

Germination  of  Seeds.  There  are  many  conditions 
which  affect  the  germination  of  seeds: 

(1)  Seeds  which  are  thoroughly  ripened  before  they 
are  gathered  produce  the  best  plants.  Very  immature 
seeds  will  very  often  grow,  but  the  tendency  with  them 
is  to  produce  weak  plants.  (2)  Freshly  gathered  seeds, 
as  a  rule,  are  preferable  to  old  seeds  for  sowing,  and  seeds 
that  have  never  been  allowed  to  become  very  dry  are  more 
likely  to  grow  than  those  which  have  been  severely  dried. 
This  is  especially  true  of  most  of  the  kinds  of  seeds  that 
ripen  in  early  summer,  the  most  of  which  lose  their  vitality 
very  quickly  when  stored.  (3)  Some  seeds,  such  as 
those  of  the  Plum,  Cherry,  and  Black  Walnut,  require 
severe  freezing  when  moist  in  order  to  germinate.  (4) 
Seeds  that  are  covered  with  water  will  not  generally  grow. 
This  is  true  at  least  of  our  Northern  tree  seeds.  (5)  The 
seeds  of  some  trees  germinate  at  a  temperature  near 


88  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

freezing,  while  others  require  a  much  higher  temperature. 
(6)  After  seeds  of  some  plants  have  become  very  dry, 
scalding  may  aid  them  in  germinating,  while  with  others, 
scalding  is  injurious.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  soak 
seeds  for  one  or  two  days  in  tepid  water  and  then  mix 
with  sand  and  freeze  before  sowing.  Lindley  records 
that  seeds  found  in  raspberry  jam  grew  after  passing 
through  the  heat  necessary  to  boil  syrup  (240  degrees 
Fahr.),  and  that  seeds  of  Acacia  grew  after  being  boiled 
five  minutes,  but  our  common  tree  seeds  will  not  stand 
such  treatment. 


FIG.  20. — Cross-section  of  stratifying  pit  for  storing  seeds  during 
winter,  covered  with  inverted  sods. 


Stratification,  as  the  term  is  used  in  this  connection, 
refers  to  the  storing  of  seeds  mixed  with  layers  of  earth, 
leaves,  or  other  material.  It  is  customary  to  apply  the 
term  solely  to  seeds  that  are  mixed  in  this  way  and  kept 
frozen  over  winter.  It  is  the  common  practice  with  the 
seeds  of  such  trees  as  the  Black  Walnut,  Hickory,  Bass- 
wood,  Plum,  Cherry,  and  Mountain  Ash.  Where  only 
small  quantities  are  to  be  cared  for  they  are  generally 
mixed  in  boxes  and  the  boxes  buried  in  well-drained  soil 


PBOPAGATIOK. 


89 


out  of  doors,  but  where  large  quantities  are  to  be  handled, 
they  may  be  mixed  with  soil  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  left  until  spring ;  such  a  pile  is  termed  a  pit.  One  of 
the  best  materials  with  which  to  cover  seed-pits  is  in- 
verted grass  sod.  It  is  often  a  good  plan  to  have  the 
material  that  is  mixed  with  the  seed  so  fine  that  it  will 
easily  go  through  a  screen  and  leave  the  seeds  separated 
for  sowing. 

Wintering  Acorns  and  Other  Nuts  in  Large  Quanti- 
ties.    On  account  of  the  great  liability  to  injure  where 


FIG.  21. — A  Danish  storehouse  for  nut  seeds,  where  5,000  bushels  of 
acorns  and  beech-nuts  are  stored  each  winter.  The  nuts  are  put 
in  18  inches  deep  and  turned  every  day. 

a  large  amount  of  nuts  are  stored  in  heaps,  and  on  account 
of  the  impracticability  of  stratifying  them  with  sand, 
the  following  plan  is  resorted  to  in  some  sections : 

A  house  is  made,  preferably  with  a  sandy  floor,  so  as 
to  secure  good  drainage,  and  is  covered  with  sod  roof 
and  sides,  so  as  to  keep  out  most  of  the  frost.  This  may  be 
of  any  size,  but  perhaps  20  feet  in  width  and  any  length 


90  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

would  be  very  convenient.  The  nuts  are  spread  over  the 
ground  about  18  inches  thick,  and  are  stirred  frequently 
until  frozen  in  winter.  As  soon  as  they  thaw  out  they 
are  turned  once  a  day.  In  this  way  they  are  prevented 
from  moulding,  and  from  the  other  injuries  that  are  so 
common  to  nuts  stored  in  large  quantities.  It  is  desir- 
able to  keep  the  temperature  from  ever  going  much 
below  freezing  in  such  a  storehouse. 

Seeds  May  be  Classified  Into  Three  Groups:  (1)  Those 
that  ripen  in  spring  and  early  summer,  (2)  deciduous 
tree  seeds  that  ripen  in  autumn,  and  (3)  coniferous  tree 
seeds. 

Seeds  that  Ripen  in  Spring  and  Early  Summer  (Soft 
and  Red  Maple,  Elms,  Cottonwood,  and  Willows)  should 
be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Red  Elm,  sown  within  a  few  days  or  weeks/  as  they 
retain  their  vitality  but  a  short  time.  (Red  Elm  seed 
will  not  grow  until  the  following  spring.)  In  raising 
seedlings  of  this  class,  it  is  important  to  have  land  that 
will  retain  its  moisture  -during  the  summer  months  or 
else  that  which  can  be  conveniently  irrigated,  since  these 
seeds  must  often  be  sown  during  very  hot,  dry  weather, 
and  as  they  cannot  be  covered  deeply  they  are  very  liable 
to  fail  with  any  but  the  best  conditions.  The  thousands 
of  seedlings  of  Cottonwood,  Elm,  and  Soft  Maple  that 
spring  up  on  the  sand  bars  along  our  rivers  and  lake  shores 
show  what  are  the  best  conditions  for  these  seeds  to 
germinate. 

Cottonwood  Seedlings  can  be  grown  by  scattering  the 
branches  bearing  unopened  seed-pods  along  rows  in  moist 
soil  and  covering  the  seed  lightly  when  it  falls,  but  they 
are  of  so  uncertain  growth  that  most  of  our  nurserymen 
depend  upon  the  sand  bars  and  lake  shores  for  their  supply. 

Elm,  Soft  Maple,  and  Mulberry  seeds  generally  grow 
well  on  any  good  moist  soil.  They  should  be  sown 


PROPAGATION. 


92  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

thickly  in  drills  eight  inches  wide  and  three  feet  apart, 
or  in  narrow  drills.  Elm  seeds  should  be  covered  with 
about  one-half  inch  of  soil,  Mulberry  with  about  one- 
fourth  inch,  and  Soft  Maple  with  about  one  inch.  If 
the  weather  is  dry  the  soil  over  the  seeds  should  be  well 
packed,  and  if  the  weather  continues  dry  the  rows  should 
be  watered.  Watering,  however,  is  seldom  necessary 
on  retentive  soil  if  the  soil  has  been  properly  packed. 
With  proper  conditions  seeds  so  planted  will  start  quickly 
and  grow  rapidly;  the  Elm  will  grow  from  six  to  eighteen 
inches  and  the  Soft  Maple  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches 
high  before  the  first  autumn.  Such  seedlings  are  large 
enough  for  permanent  setting  in  forest  plantations  or 
windbreaks.  They  may  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  seed- 
bed another  year  without  injury,  but  should  be  trans- 
planted before  the  gnrvvth  of  the  third  season  begins. 

Seeds  of  Deciduous  Trees  that  Ripen  in  Autumn  may 
be  sown  to  advantage  in  the  autumn  provided  (1)  the 
soil  is  not  of  such  a  nature  as  to  become  too  solidly  packed 
over  them  before  spring;  (2)  they  are  not  liable  to  dry 
up  or  wash  out;  or  (3)  they  are  not  subject  to  injuries 
from  rodents,  insects,  or  other  animals.  In  many  locations 
some  or  all  of  these  possible  injuries  may  make  spring- 
sowing  most  desirable  with  most  kinds  of  seeds.  Our 
most  successful  nurserymen,  however,  prefer  to  sow  in 
autumn,  and  to  try  to  bring  about  the  conditions  that 
make  it  successful. 

In  the  Matter  of  Storing  Seeds  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down 
any  exact  rule  to  follow,  and  here,  as  in  all  other  similar 
matters,  considerable  must  be  left  to  good  judgment.  As 
a  rule,  however,  it  is  perfectly  safe  to  winter  over  all  of 
the  seeds  of  hardy  plants  which  ripen  in  autumn  by  burying 
them  in  sand  out  of  doors. 

Tree  Seeds  that  Ripen  in  Autumn  may  be  divided 
into  four  classes,  which  require  different  methods  of  treat- 


PROPAGATION.  93 

ment  to  grow  them,  viz.,  dry  seeds,  seeds  with  fleshy 
coverings,  nut  seeds,  and  leguminous  tree  seeds. 

Dry  Seeds,  like  those  of  the  Ash,  Birch,  Hard  Maple, 
and  Box-elder,  are  very  certain  to  grow  when  sown  in  the 
spring  in  drills  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  easily  worked,  in 
the  same  way  as  recommended  for  Soft  Maple  and  Elm. 
If  not  sown  until  spring  they  will  have  to  be  kept  over 
winter,  and,  when  only  a  small  quantity  is  to  be  kept 
over,  this  is  done  best  by  spreading  the  seeds  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  hard  ground,  covering  with  an  inverted  box 
and  digging  a  ditch  around  it  to  carry  off  the  water,  or 
the  seeds  may  be  mixed  with  sand  and  kept  in  a  dry, 
cool  place.  Large  quantities  may  be  kept  on  dry  ground 
under  a  shed.  These  seeds  will  stand  considerable  dry- 
ing, but  if  allowed  to  become  very  dry,  hot,  or  moist 
their  vitality  may  be  injured  or  destroyed. 

Seeds  with  Fleshy  Coverings,  as  those  of  the  Cherry 
and  Plum,  should  be  kept  from  getting  dry  before  planting. 
The  best  way  to  handle  them  is  to  separate  them  from 
the  pulp,  mix  with  moist  sand  out  of  doors,  and  keep 
them  moist  until  planted.  It  is  generally  safe  to  sow 
such  seeds  in  the  autumn  on  good  land,  but  some  growers 
prefer  to  sow  them  in  the  spring.  This  class  of  seeds 
should  be  frozen  before  germinating.  If  allowed  to  get 
dry  before  being  frozen,  they  should  be  mixed  with  moist 
sand  for  a  few  days  until  plump,  or  they  may  be  soaked 
in  water,  but  care  should  be  taken  that  they  do  not  get 
water-soaked.  Sometimes  the  dry,  hard  shells  of  such 
seeds  seem  to  be  waterproof.  In  this  case,  if  the  seeds 
are  of  special  value,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  file  a  hole  through 
the  shell,  so  as  to  let  the  seed  become  moist.  Most  seeds 
of  this  class  grow  the  first  year  if  properly  handled,  but 
some  of  them — for  example,  the  Red  Cedar  and  the  Wild 
Thorn — even  with  the  best  management,  will  remain 
dormant  in  the  ground  for  one  year  before  growing. 


94  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

Nut  Seeds,  as  those  of  the  Oak,  Hickory,  and  Walnut, 
should  be  handled  as  recommended  for  seeds  with  fleshy 
coverings,  but  are  more  sensitive  about  being  severely 
dried.  As  they  do  not  transplant  readily,  it  is  very 
desirable  to  plant  them  where  they  are  to  remain 
permanently.  They  should  be  covered  about  two  inches 
deep. 

Seeds  of  Leguminous  Trees,  as  those  of  the  Black 
Locust,  Honey  Locust,  and  Coffee-tree,  will  stand  severe 
drying  for  a  long  time  and  still  grow  provided  they  are 
treated  with  hot  water  just  before  planting.  In  this  case 
the  hot  water  should  be  poured  over  the  seeds  shortly 
before  they  are  sown,  and  be  allowed  to  stand  until  cool, 
when  it  will  be  found  that  some  of  the  seeds  have  swollen 
up;  these  should  be  picked  out  and  the  remainder  be 
treated  again  with  hot  water,  and  the  process  repeated 
until  all  have  swollen.  Seedlings  of  this  class  generally 
transplant  readily,  and  are  managed  in  the  same  way 
that  is  here  recommended  for  the  Ashes  and  Maples. 

Seeds  of  Coniferous  Trees,  such  as  Pine,  Spruce,  Tama- 
rack, and  Arborvitse,  are  dry  and  winged,  but  the  Red 
Cedar  has  a  fleshy,  berry-like  covering  surrounding  its 
seed.  The  seeds  that  grow  in  cones  are  most  easily 
gathered  before  being  shed  from  the  cones.  The  cones 
should  be  gathered  before  they  open,  and  then  dried, 
after  which  those  of  most  species  will  open  and  the  seeds 
•(can  be  threshed  out.  Cones  of  a  few  trees,  as  those  of 
the  Jack  Pine,  will  not  open  without  artificial  heat. 
These  can  be  opened  by  gently  heating  them  over  a  stove 
or  in  an  oven  to  a  temperature  of  from  100  to  150  degrees 
Fahr.  Seeds  of  this  class  grow  readily  when  sown,  but 
must  be  very  carefully  stored  or  they  will  lose  their  vitality. 
They  should  be  kept  similarly  to  the  seed  of  the  Ash  and 
Box-elder,  but  are  more  liable  to  injury  than  these  kinds 
from  too  much  moisture  or  heat,  and  for  this  reason 


PROPAGATION.  95 

some  careful  growers  prefer  to  always  keep  them  mixed 
with  dry  sand  in  a  cool  shed. 

The  Seeds  of  the  Red  Cedar  hang  on  the  tree  all  winter, 
and  must  be  picked  by  hand.  They  should  be  soaked 
in  strong  lye  for  twenty-four  hours,  the  fleshy  covering 
removed  by  rubbing  them  against  a  fine  sieve,  and  then 
stratified  in  sand,  where  they  will  be  frozen  during  the 
winter.  Even  with  this  treatment  they  will  seldom  grow 
until  the  second  year. 

Raising  Coniferous  Trees  from  Seed.  The  land  selected 
for  sowing  the  seed  should  have  a  light,  porous  surface 
soil,  preferably  underlaid  with  a  moist  subsoil  that  will  not 
dry  out  easily.  It  should  be  so  located  as  to  have  good 
circulation  of  air  over  it,  that  the  plants  may  dry  off 
quickly  after  rains,  and  it  must  be  so  shaded  as  to  keep 
off  about  one-half  of  the  sunlight.  This  latter  permits 
a  play  of  light  and  shade  over  the  bed  all  day,  and  is  about 
the  condition  under  which  we  find  nature  raising  such 
seedlings  where  trees  partially  shade  the  ground  and 
protect  them  from  the  constant  rays  of  the  sun.  In 
practice '  we  aim  to  secure  these  conditions  as  follows : 
A  piece  of  well-drained,  rather  sandy  soil  in  an  airy  place 
is  selected  and  laid  out  in  beds  four  feet  wide.  In  May 
the  seeds  are  sown  rather  thickly  (about  three  good  seeds 
to  a  square  inch),  either  broadcast  or  in  rows,  and  covered 
with  about  one-fourth  inch  of  sandy  loam  and  then  with 
about  one-fourth  inch  of  clear  sand.  Some  of  the  small 
seeds,  like  those  of  White  Spruce,  should  not  be  covered 
more  than  one-fourth  inch.  Before  the  seedlings  break 
the  ground,  a  framework  at  least  three  feet  above  the 
beds  is  made  and  covered  with  laths,  laid  about  one 
and  one-half  inches  apart,  running  north  and  south,  or 
with  sufficient  brush  to  shut  out  about  one-half  the  sun- 
light. If  the  bed  is  very  much  exposed  to  the  winds  it 
should  have  similar  protection  on  all  sides.  In  such 


96  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

a  place  as  this,  or  in  woodlands  where  these  conditions 
can  be  fulfilled,  evergreens  can  be  raised  with  much  cer- 
tainty, while  if  planted  in  the  open  ground,  most  kinds 
are  sure  to  fail. 

The  Most  Common  Cause  of  Failure  with  those  who 
try  to  raise  Evergreens  is  what  is  known  as  "damping 
off,"  which  occurs  only  while  the  plants  are  growing  rapidly 
the  first  year.  In  such  a  case  the  seeds  start  well,  and 
the  seedlings  grow  vigorously  for  a  short  time,  or  until 


FIG.  23. — Evergreen  seed-bed  shaded  with  a  screen  of   old   brush 
placed  on  a  frame. 


we  have  a  spell  of  damp  weather,  and  then  die  off  with 
great  rapidity.  It  seems  that  the  sunlight  and  the  mud 
that  has  been  spattered  on  the  plants  so  weaken  them 
that  they  are  liable  to  disease.  For  this  reason  we  shade 
the  bed  and  cover  with  sand,  which  will  not  allow  the 
mud  to  be  spattered  over  the  seedlings,  and  in  very  moist, 
warm  weather  we  occasionally  apply  dry  sand  to  dry  off 


PROPAGATION.  97 

the  plants.  For  most  kinds  of  conifers  the  shade  is  re- 
quired for  at  least  two  years. 

Most  of  the  Coniferous  Tree  Seedlings  Grow  Very 
Slowly  When  Young,  seldom  making  a  growth  of  more 
than  two  or  three  inches  the  first  year.  The  most  rapid 
growing  of  our  Pines  seldom  produce  a  growth  of  more 
than  sixteen  inches  in  four  years,  and  should  not  be  moved 
to  their  permanent  place  until  about  this  time.  They 
should,  however,  be  transplanted  from  the  seed-bed  to  a 
temporary  place  when  two  years  old,  to  prevent  crowd- 
ing and  to  make  a  compact  root-growth. 

On  the  approach  of  winter,  the  beds  of  coniferous  seed- 
lings should  be  covered  with  about  three  inches  of  straw 
or  leaves,  evergreen  branches,  or  other  material  that  will 
afford  protection  from  the  sun  and  from  alternate  freez- 
ing and  thawing.  This  should  be  removed  in  the  spring 
after  all  danger  from  drying  cold  winds  has  passed. 

Depth  to  Cover  Seeds.  Most  of  our  tree  seeds  should, 
in  good  soil,  be  covered  from  one-half  to  three-quarters 
of  an  inch;  but  this  is  rather  too  much  for  such  small  seeds 
as  the  Birch,  Alder,  and  Cottonwood,  while  the  Black 
Walnut,  native  Plum,  Acorns,  and  other  large  seeds 
and  seeds  of  Box-elder,  Ash,  Soft  Maple,  and  Basswood 
may  often  be  covered  two  inches  to  advantage  if  the  soil 
is  somewhat  dry.  It  is  a  good  rule  not  to  cover  any  tree 
seeds  deeper  than  is  necessary  to  secure  permanent  moist- 
ure, and  on  wet  or  heavy  land  only  a  very  thin  covering 
is  desirable.  If  the  land  is  very  heavy,  it  is  a  good  plan 
not  only  to  cover  lightly  but  to  sow  more  thickly  than 
usual,  as  a  large  number. of  seeds  may  be  able  to  push 
up  through  the  surface  soil  when  a  few  would  fail  to 
do  so. 

The  Amount  of  Seeds  of  Deciduous  Trees  to  Sow  on 
a  given  area  depends  very  much  on  the  kind  and  quality 
of  the  seeds  and  the  soil  in  which  they  are  to  be  sown.  As 


98  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

a  rule,  thick  is  better  than  thin  sowing.  The  seeds  of 
Box-elder,  Ash,  and  Maple  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of 
about  one  good  seed  to  the  square  inch;  Elm  and  Birch 
should  be  sown  twice  as  thick.  Plums  and  cherries  sown 
in  drills  should  be  allowed  about  one  inch  of  row  for  each 
good  seed.  Black  Walnut,  Butternut,  Hickory,  and 
similar  seeds  should  preferably  be  planted  three  or  four 
in  a  place,  and  all  but  one  seedling  cut  out  when  nicely 
started.  If  sown  in  drills,  they  should  be  placed  from 
three  to  six  inches  apart.  Rather  thick  seeding  does 
not  seem  to  be  any  hindrance  to  the  making  of  a  good 
growth  by  seedlings  of  most  of  our  broad-leaved  trees 
the  first  year,  but  if  left  thick  in  the  seed-bed  the  second 
year  they  are  often  seriously  stunted.  On  this  account 
such  seedlings  should  be  transplanted  or  thinned  out 
before  the  beginning  of  the  second  year.  In  nursery- 
planting  it  is  a  good  plan  to  sow  in  freshly  stirred  land, 
as  the  seeds  are  far  more  likely  to  get  a  good  start  in  it 
than  in  soil  that  has  remained  untilled  long  enough  to 
become  crusty  and  lumpy.  Then,  if  the  seeds  are  planted 
immediately  after  cultivation  has  been  given,  and  while 
the  soil  is  still  moist,  they  have  at  least  as  good  a  chance 
as  the  weeds  to  start,  while  otherwise  the  weeds  are  soon 
ahead  of  the  seedlings. 

The  Amount  of  Seed  to  Sow  in  order  to  obtain  a  given 
number  of  seedlings  will  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the 
seed  and  on  the  soil  and  weather  conditions  at  the  time  of 
sowng.  The  quality  of  seed  varies  much  in  different 
years  and  from  different  trees.  The  only  way  to  be  at  all 
accurate  is  to  test  the  seed,  but  as  this  is  troublesome 
and  the  seed  of  most  of  our  common  trees  is  very  cheap, 
it  is  seldom  practised  with  them,  and  growers  simply 
plan  to  sow  two  or  three  times  as  much  seed  as  would 
theoretically  produce  the  number  of  seedlings  desired. 

The  Number  of  Seeds  in  a  Pound  varies  greatly  with 


PROPAGATION. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  APPROXIMATE  HEIGHTS  OF  ONE- 
YEAR-OLD  SEEDLINGS  GROWN  ON  GOOD  AVERAGE 
SOIL  IN  MINNESOTA. 


Botanical  Names. 

Common  Names. 

Height  in 
Inches. 

White  Pine.  .    . 

3 

Western  White  Pine  

3 

Red  Pine     .  . 

3 

3 

Rock  Pine 

3 

Pinus  sylvestris  .  .         

Scotch  Pine  

3 

\ustrian  Pine  

3 

Tamarack           

3 

European  Larch  .  . 

3 

White  Spruce 

2 

Picea  mariana  

Black  Spruce  

2 

Picea  parryana  

Blue  Spruce  

3 

Picea  engelmanni  
Picea  excelsa  
Tsuga  canadensis  
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  

Engelmann  Spruce  
Norway  Spruce  
Hemlock  
Douglas  Spruce  

3 

2 
3 
4 

A  bies  balsamea  
Abies  concolor  

Balsam  Fir.  
White  Fir  

3 
2 

Thuja  occidentalis  

Arborvitse    

2 

Juniperus  virginiana  .... 

Red  Cedar  

3 

Commoii  Juniper  .    . 

2 

Black  Walnut 

12 

12 

Hicoria  ovata  

Shellbark  Hickory  

8 

Hicoria  minima  

Bitternut  Hickory  

4 

Salix  nigra    

Black  Willow  

10 

Salix  amygdaloides  

Peachleaf  Willow  

10 

Salix  alba 

White  WHlow  .  .  . 

10 

Salix  lucida 

Shining  Willow 

6 

10 

Populus  grandidenta  

Large-tooth  Poplar  .... 

12 

10 

16 

Belula  papi/rifera  

Canoe  Birch  .  .  . 

4-8 

Betula  alba  

European  White  Birch 

6-10 

Betula  lutea           

Yellow  Birch 

4-8 

Ostrya  virginiana  .  .      .    . 

Hop  Hornbeam 

4-6 

Carpinus  caroliniana  

Blue  Beach  

4-6 

White  Oak 

4  8 

Bur  Oak 

4-8 

Quercus  rubra  

Red  Oak  

6-12 

Scarlet  Oak 

6  12 

Chestnut  

6-12 

100 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  APPROXIMATE  HEIGHTS  OF  ONE- 
YEAR-OLD  SEEDLINGS  GROWN  ON  GOOD  AVERAGE 
SOIL  IN  MINNESOTA—  (Continued'), 


Botanical  Names. 

Common  Names. 

Height  in 
Inches. 

Ulmus  americana    

White  Elm  

6-12 

Cork  Elm 

6-10 

Ulmus  pubescens.  
Celtis  occidentalis  

Slippery  Elm  
Hackberry  

10-20 
8-10 

Morus  rubra  
Morus  alba  tartarica  
Pyrus  ioensis  .    .                 ... 

Red  Mulberry.  ..  

Russian  Mulberry  
Wild  Crab 

6-10 
6-12 

4-8 

Pyrus  americana 

American  Mountain  Ash 

8 

Elderleaf  Mountain  Ash 

4  8 

Amelanchier  canadensis  

June-berry  

8 

Crataegus  tomentosa  

Black  Thorn  

4-8 

Prunus  americana  

Wild  Plum 

15 

Pntnus  pennsylvanica  

Wild  Red  Cherry 

12 

Prunus  serotina 

Wild  Black  Cherry 

12 

Prunus  virginiana  

Choke  Cherry  

12 

Gleditsia  triacanthos  

Honev  Locust  

8-12 

Gym.nocladus  dioicus  

Coffee-tree  

8-12 

Robinia  pseudacacia  

Locust 

24 

Acer  sa.ccharum  .  . 

Sugar  Maple 

12 

Acer  platanoides 

12 

Acer  rubrum  

Red  Maple  

10 

Soft  Maple 

24 

A  cer  pennsylvanicum  

Striped  Maple 

4 

Acer  tartaricum  .  . 

Tartarian  Maple 

4 

Acer  negundo  
jEsculus  hippocastanum,  
jEsculus  glabra  
Rhamnus  catharticus  

Box-elder  
Horso  Chestnut  
Ohio  Buckeye  
Buckthorn    . 

12 
6 
4-6 
6-12 

Tilia  americana 

Basswood 

6  12 

Elasagnus  angustifolia 

Russian  Olive 

12 

Fraxinus  americana 

White  Ash 

12 

Fraxinus  lanceolata  

Green  Ash  

12 

Black  Ash 

g 

Catalpa  speciosa  

Hardy  Catalpa 

24 

Viburnum  lentago.  .  .  . 

Black  Haw 

4  6 

size  of  seed  and  dryness.  In  the  case  of  the  Birch  there 
are  perhaps  four  hundred  thousand;  in  Scotch,  Shortleaf, 
Red  Pine,  and  Norway  Spruce  there  are  perhaps  seventy 
thousand;  in  White  Pine  about  thirty  thousand;  in  Box- 


PKOPAGATIOK.  101 

elder  and  White  Ash  about  ten  thousand;  in  Basswood 
and  Sugar  Maple  about  eight  thousand;  in  Soft  Maple 
about  four  thousand;  in  Black  Walnut  about  twenty 
of  the  dry  nuts  in  one  pound  and  in  Hickory  Nuts  from 
forty  to  sixty  in  a  pound. 

It  is  Important  to  Keep  the  Soil  Loose  and  Mellow 
between  the  seedlings,  and  to  keep  the  weeds  very  care- 
fully removed  until  at  least  the  middle  of  July,  after  which 
they  may  sometimes  be  left  to  advantage  to  afford  winter 
protection;  but  in  the  case  of  very  small  seedlings  this 
protection  is  best  given  by  a  light  mulch,  put  on  in  autumn 
and  taken  off  in  spring,  and  the  weeds  should  be  kept 
out. 

If  the  Seeds  of  Red  Cedar,  Black  Thorn,  Mountain 
Ash,  and  other  seeds  that  require  a  long  time  to  start 
are  sown  in  the  spring  and  do  not  germinate,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  cover  the  bed  with  about  an  inch  or  two  of  hay 
or  leaves,  keep  out  weeds,  and  let  this  mulch  remain 
until  the  following  spring,  when  the  seeds  will  probably 
be  in  condition  to  grow,  and  the  mulch  should  then  be 
removed. 

CUTTINGS. 

Cuttings  are  Pieces  of  the  Branches  or  Roots  which  have 
the  power  of  growing  and  forming  new  plants  when  placed 
in  moist  sand,  soil,  or  other  material.  For  example,  the 
pieces  of  the  twigs  on  branches  of  many  kinds  of  Willows 
and  Poplars,  when  taken  while  the  tree  is  dormant,  will 
root  when  placed  in  moist  soil,  but  there  are  few  other 
trees  that  grow  as  readily  from  cuttings  as  these.  Cut- 
tings of  the  roots  of  many  kinds  of  trees,  as  the  White 
Poplar,  Wild  Plum,  Yellow  Locust,  and  many  others  that 
sprout  from  the  roots,  will  grow  if  treated  about  the  same 
way  as  branch  cuttings. 

In  growing  plants  from  cuttings,  the  source  of  the  cut- 


102  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

tings  is  not  of  so  great  importance  as  the  source  of  the 
seed  from  which  the  stock  trees  were  grown,  for  the  qual- 
ities of  individual  trees  are  probably  not  permanently 
or  greatly  changed  by  climate.  For  instance,  trees  grown 
from  the  cuttings  of  Russian  Poplars  would  be  as  hardy 
in  Dakota  if  the  cuttings  came  from  St.  Louis,  where 
they  had  been  growing  for  years,  as  they  would  be  if 
imported  direct  from  Siberia.  However,  owing  to  a  longer 
growing  season  at  St.  Louis,  the  wood  might  be  of  a  more 
open  texture,  and  perhaps  might  not  resist  cold  as  well 
as  Minnesota-grown  wood;  but  after  one  season's  growth 
in  Minnesota  it  would  probably  be  as  hardy.  The  same 
would  hold  true  of  plants  propagated  by  any  method  of 
division.  With  the  exception  of  Willows  and  Poplars, 
very  few  of  our  ornamental  trees  grow  readily  from  cut- 
tings. The  best  time  to  make  cuttings  is  in  the  fall,  as 
soon  as  the  leaves  will  strip  easily  from  the  twigs.  Most 
of  the  Willows  and  Poplars  will  grow  readily  from  cuttings 
made  in  the  spring,  and  even  those  made  in  summer 
will  generally  grow  if  planted  in  moist  soil.  For  this 
purpose  the  smaller  branches  with  the  leaves  removed 
should  be  used.  They  may  also  be  rooted  from  growing 
twigs  with  the  leaves  left  on,  provided  the  cut  surfaces 
are  placed  in  water,  as  they  should  be  if  stuck  in  the  soil 
of  a  swamp  or  treated  the  same  as  cuttings  of  geraniums. 
These  latter  ways,  however,  are  not  to  be  depended  upon 
for  general  propagation  purposes. 

The  Form  and  Size  of  Cuttings  is  a  matter  upon  which 
there  is  great  difference  of  opinion.  Cuttings  of  the 
willow  from  one  bud  each  and  only  an  inch  or  two  long 
up  to  those  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter  and  ten  or  twelve 
feet  in  length  can  generally  be  made  to  grow,  but  probably 
the  most  convenient  size  for  general  planting  is  one- 
half  inch  in  diameter  and  twelve  inches  in  length.  They 
are  generally  tied  in  bunches  of  100  or  200  each  for  con- 


PKOPAGATHXN. 


103 


venience  in  handling,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
all  the  butt  ends  one  way  to  facilitate  planting.  Very 
large  cuttings  are  liable  to  decay  in 
the  centre,  and  are  not  best  to  use, 
although  they  often  make  a  very 
rapid  growth.  Poles  of  "Willows  and 
Poplars  are  sometimes  laid  in  furrows 
where  they  will  generally  sprout  wher- 
ever the  bark  is  laid  bare  and  often 
make  good  trees. 

In  Planting  Cuttings  of  ordinary 
size  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  soil 
loose,  and  then  after  marking  off  the 
rows,  the  cuttings  can  be  pushed  into 
the  land  the  proper  depth.  If  not  de- 
sirable to  plough  all  the  land,  it  may 
be  loosened  just  where  the  rows  are  to 
come.  Where  a  subsoil  plough  can  be 
obtained,  it  can  be  made  very  useful  for  this  purpose. 

Cuttings  should  be  planted  at  an  angle  of  about  forty- 
five  degrees,  leaving  only  one  bud  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  the  soil  should  be  packed  firmly  around 


FIG.  24. — A  bunch 
of  WUlow  cut- 
tings. 


FIG.  25. — Planted  cuttings,  showing  angle  and  depth  at  which  to 
plant  cuttings. 

them.  Those  set  in  a  slanting  position  settle  with  the 
soil  and  remain  firm,  while  those  set  vertically  may  be- 
come loosened  by  the  settling  of  the  soil  near  them,  leaving 
too  much  of  them  exposed  above  the  surface,  unless  very 
great  care  is  exercised  in  planting.  The  rows  in  the 


104  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

nursery  should  be  about  four  feet  apart,  and  the  cuttings 
about  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  though  a  much  less 
distance  may  sometimes  be  sufficient.  In  packing  the 
soil  over  the  cuttings  great  pains  should  be  taken  to  get 
it  very  solid  around*  the  lower  end,  and  if  the  soil  is  very 
dry,  the  firmest  pressure  of  the  full  weight  of  a  man  over 
the  base  of  each  cutting  is  not  too  great;  in  fact,  when  the 
soil  is  dry,  it  cannot  be  made  too  firm  over  the  cutting. 
When  the  soil  is  moist,  however,  only  enough  pressure 
should  be  used  to  bring  the  particles  in  close  contact  and 
close  up  the  air-spaces. 

The  Cultivation  of  Cuttings  should  commence  shortly 
after  they  are  planted,  and  the  top  soil  should  be  kept 
loosened  to  the  depth  of  about  three  inches,  which,  while 
not  disturbing  the  solid  soil  around  the  base  of  the 
cuttings,  prevents  evaporation  from  the  soil. 

Time  of  Planting  Cuttings.  Spring  cuttings  may  be 
planted  at  once  where  they  are  to  grow.  Autumn  cuttings 
may  be  planted  out  at  once,  provided  the  land  is  not  wet, 
but  when  planted  at  this  season  they  should  be  covered 
with  soil  turned  toward  them  with  a  plough.  In  the  spring 
this  covering  should  be  raked  off  before  the  buds  swell. 
The  ground  being  warm  in  autumn  often  causes  autumn- 
planted  cuttings  of  some  kinds  to  root  before  cold  weather 
sets  in,  and  if  made  up  before  the  first  of  October  they 
may  thus  score  quite  a  gain  over  spring-planted  cuttings. 
If  not  desirable  to  plant  in  the  autumn,  the  bundles  of 
cuttings  may  be  kept  over  winter  buried  in  moist  soil, 
preferably  that  which  is  somewhat  sandy,  where  there 
is  no  standing  water;  but  much  care  should  be  taken 
to  keep  them  from  drying  out.  To  this  end  the  bundles 
should  be  buried  so  as  not  to  touch  each  other,  and  have 
two  or  three  inches  of  soil  packed  in  between  them.  If 
they  are  kept  in  a  cellar,  moist  sawdust  will  be  found 
to  be  good  material  to  keep  them  in. 


PKOPAGATION.  105 

The  amount  of  growth  made  by  cuttings  varies  much, 
according  to  the  kind  of  plant,  size  of  cuttings,  soil,  etc. 
The  most  of  our  Willows  will  make  a  growth  of  three  or 
four  feet  on  good  soil  in  one  "season  from  ordinary  cut- 
tings. 

The  Solar  Pit.  There  are  many  trees  that  will  not 
grow  from  cuttings  unless  they  have  their  roots  started 
a  little  before  planting.  This  is  most  easily  accom- 
plished by  means  of  what  is  called  the  "solar  pit,"  which 
owes  its  success  to  the  fact  that  cuttings  root  first  at  the 
warmer  end.  It  is  made  and  used  as  follows:  The  bun- 
dles of  cuttings  are  heeled-in  as  recommended.  In  the 
spring  they  are  taken  out  and  buried  close  together,  with 
the  butt  ends  uppermost,  in  a  warm,  sunny  spot  and 
covered  with  about  six  inches  of  soil.  A  hotbed  frame 
with  sash  is  then  put  over  the  spot  to  warm  the  soil. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  using  sash,  the  soil  over  the  cut- 
tings is  covered  with  a  foot 
or  more  of  fermenting  manure. 
In  either  case  the  soil  is 
warmed  and  the  formation 

of  roots  encouraged.     In  using  „ 

.    to  FIG.  26. — The  solar  pit.  show- 
the    solar    pit,     the    rooting      ing  bundles  of  cuttings  in 

process  should  not  be  carried  Place  under  glass- 
so  far  as  to  permit  roots  to  show  plainly,  as  they  are 
liable  to  be  broken  off  in  planting  out;  but  the  cuttings 
should  be  planted  out  as  soon  as  they  show  signs  of 
heeling  over  on  the  butt  end.  This  heeling-over  process 
is  called  callousing,  and  in  many  plants  necessarily 
precedes  the  formation  of  roots. 


Layers  are  portions  of  the  branches  of  trees,  shrubs, 
or  vines  which   are   covered   with  earth  without  being 


106 


PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


separated  from  the  parent  plant  and  there  take  root  and 
grow.  These  are  cut  off  from  the  main  plant  in  autumn 
or  spring  and  form  new  plants.  Almost  all  trees  and 
other  plants  can  be  rooted  in  this  way,  but  while  some 
root  very  easily,  others  require  so  long  a  time  to  do  so 
as  to  make  it  impracticable  with  them. 

The  growing  of  trees  from  layers  is  seldom  practised 
in  this  country,  but  in  some  European  nurseries  it  is 
a  common  means  by  which  to  increase  special  varieties 
of  trees.  For  this  purpose  what  is  commonly  known  as 
mound-layering  is  often  used.  This  consists  simply  of 


FIG.  27. — Showing  method  of  mound-layering. 

drawing  the  soil  up  around  the  sprouts  that  come  from 
the  stump  of  a  tree,  covering  the  base  of  them  about 
a  foot  in  depth.  It  may  be  done  at  any  time  of  the 
year  after  the  sprouts  are  two  or  more  feet  high,  but 
preferably  in  the  spring.  After  the  sprouts  have  become 


PROPAGATION.  107 

well  rooted,  they  may  be  removed  in  spring  or  autumn 
and  treated  the  same  as  seedlings.  Layering  is  some- 
times practised  in  European  forests  to  fill  up  vacancies, 
nnd  a  similar  method  is  often  employed  in  nurseries. 

GRAFTAGE. 

Graftage  refers  to  the  growing  of  one  plant  on  the  stem, 
root,  or  branch  of  another  plant.  There  are  several  forms 
of  graftage,  which  are  generally  known  as  grafting,  budding, 
and  inarching.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  use  graftage 
in  the  growing  of  the  different  varieties  of  fruit-trees, 
and  it  is  also  used  to  some  extent  in  the  growing  of  some 
of  the  varieties  of  ornamental  trees  that  cannot  be  grown 
from  seed.  Trees  that  are  grown  by  any  form  of  graftage 
are  seldom  as  long-lived  as  those  grown  on  their  own 
roots,  and  these  methods  should  be  avoided  when  it  is 
practicable  to  do  so.  These  methods  are  not  much  used 
in  common  practice  and  consequently  are  not  discussed  at 
length  here. 

Inarching  is  a  rather  unusual  way  of  growing  plants. 
It  works  on  the  principle  that  when  the  growing  stems, 
branches,  and  roots  of  the  same  or  closely  allied  plants 
are  held  closely  together  for  some  time  they  become 
united.  Such  unions  of  roots  are  frequently  found  in 
woodlands;  in  some  cases  the  roots  of  the  same  trees, 
and  in  others  the  roots  of  different  trees,  become  grown 
together.  Occasionally  trees  are  found  grown  together 
by  their  branches  or  stems.  Inarching  is  sometimes 
used  for  growing  the  Cutleaf  Birch,  in  which  case  the 
sprouts  from  a  stump  of  a  Cutleaf  Birch,  or  the  twigs 
from  a  small  tree  laid  on  the  ground,  are  tied  to  small 
Birch  seedlings  which  have  been  grown  in  pots  and  plunged 
to  their  rims  in  the  ground  near  the  tree.  In  doing  this 
the  bark  is  removed  for  about  two  inches  at  the  point 


108  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

of  contact  of  the  twig  and  seedling,  which  are  then  tied 
firmly  together.  It  should  be  done  by  the  middle  of 
June,  but  will  often  be  successful  if  done  even  a  month 
later.  They  should  be  kept  together  until  the  leaves 
fall,  and  then  the  branches  from  the  parent  tree  should 
be  cut  away?  leaving  the  seedlings  with  the  twigs  grown 
fast  to  them.  These  should  be  carefully  heeled-in  over 
winter,  and  in  the  spring  the  seedlings  should  be  cut  off 
just  above  the  union,  so  as  to  throw  all  their  strength 
into  the  adopted  twig  of  the  Cutleaf  Birch.  This  method 
may  also  be  used  to  replace  lost  branches  on  trees  or  vines. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
NURSERY    PRACTICE. 

Nursery.  This  term  is  applied  to  a  plot  of  land  used 
for  raising  plants  that  are  intended  for  planting  elsewhere 
for  their  final  growth. 

Soil  and  Cultivation.  The  best  soil  for  a  general  nur- 
sery is  a  deep,  rich,  reasonably  level,  retentive  upland. 
It  is  customary  to  grow  most  of  the  nursery  crops  in  rows, 
so  that  they  may  be  readily  cultivated.  The  land  should 
be  ploughed  deeply  when  the  crop  is  planted  and  the  sur- 
face soil  kept  loose  and  fine  during  all  the  early  part  of 
the  growing  season,  or  until  about  the  middle  of  July. 
If  the  land  that  has  to  be  used  for  a  nursery  is  rather 
shallow,  it  should  be  gradually  deepened  by  ploughing 
from  year  to  year,  and  if  inclined  to  dry  out  the  addition 
of  large  quantities  of  organic  matter,  together  with  constant 
cultivation,  will  do  much  to  remedy  these  defects. 

The  cultivation  of  a  nursery  or  young  forest  plantation, 
provided  the  latter  is  planted  in  rows,  should  be  much 
the  same  as  for  garden  crops  and  consists  in  keeping  the 
land  stirred  to  the  depth  of  three  inches,  thus  giving  a 
dust  blanket,  which  will  protect  from  drought.  After 
the  first  of  August  much  cultivation  is  likely  to  encourage 
a  late  autumn  growth,  which  should  be  avoided;  but 
a  moderate  quantity  of  buckwrheat  or  oats  may  be  sown 
then  and  be  allowed  to  grow  the  remainder  of  the  season, 
to  serve  as  a  winter  protection — to  hold  snows  and  pre- 
vent the  heaving  out  of  the  young  seedlings  by  frost. 

109 


110  PRINCIPLES   OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


GRADES    OF   NURSERY    STOCK. 

Nursery  stock  of  different  kinds  has  come  to  be  known 
by  such  convenient  names  as  seedlings,  transplants,  street 
trees,  forest-pulled  seedlings,  etc. 

Seedlings  are  young  plants,  grown  from  seed,  that  have 
never  been  transplanted,  and  are  generally  designated 


FIG.  28. — A  bunch  of  Green  Ash  Seedlings. 

by  their  size  or  age.  They  form  the  cheapest  class  of 
nursery  stock,  and  are  used  largely  for  starting  wind- 
breaks. 

Transplants  are  seedlings  that  have  been  at  least  once 
transplanted,  and  are  designated  by  their  size  and  the 
number  of  times  they  have  been  moved.  They  are  higher 
in  price  than  seedlings,  but  with  some  kinds  of  trees  they 
are  much  more  likely  to  grow,  and  may  be  well  worth 
the  extra  price.  Evergreens,  especially  Pines,  will  seldom 
do  well  unless  once  transplanted  before  being  set  in  a  per- 
manent place. 

Street  Trees  include  the  trees  of  large  size  which  are 
used  for  street,  shade,  and  ornamental  purposes.  To 
be  of  the  best  quality  they  should  have  been  transplanted 
two  or  more  times  and  have  received  some  attention  in 
the  way  of  pruning  so  as  to  give  them  a  good  form.  Such 
trees  vary  much  in  quality  and  price,  but  the  best  are 
necessarily  rather  expensive. 

Forest-pulled  Deciduous  Trees  of  small  size  can  often 
be  obtained  at  a  very  low  price,  and  may  be  as  desirable 
as  those  that  are  nursery  grown. 


NURSERY    PRACTICE.  Ill 

Forest-pulled  Evergreen  Seedlings  of  Small  Size  may 

also  be  desirable,  but  too  often  they  have  poor  roots,  or 
have  been  so  injured  by  poor  handling  that  they  are 
worthless.  They  should  have  their  roots  carefully  protected 
at  all  times. 

Forest-pulled  Shade  Trees  sometimes  grow  very  well, 
but  they  are  always  inferior  to  good  nursery-grown  trees. 
They  are  generally  improved  by  having  their  roots  short- 
ened two  years  before  they  are  to  be  removed,  and  when 
so  treated  grow  very  well. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

Transplanting  is   Simply  the  Removal  of   the  Plant. 

It  may  be  to  some  permanent  place,  as  a  park,  lawn,  or 
street,  or  it  may  be  done  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
the  root  system  and  to  give  the  tree  more  room  to  grow. 
By  shortening  the  long  roots  the  root  system  is  made 
more  compact  and  better  able  to  withstand  subsequent 
removal.  This  may  be  done  by  transplanting,  or  by 
cutting  around  the  tree  with  a  spade  or  tree-digger.  It 
is  especially  desirable  to  do  this  to  trees  that  are  not 
easily  moved  on  account  of  their  long  branching  roots, 
such  as  the  Birch,  or  to  those  that  have  tap-roots,  like 
the  Oak  and  Walnut.  It  is  on  account  of  their  having 
had  their  roots  shortened  so  that  the  root  system  is  com- 
pact and  can  all  be  moved  with  the  tree  that  nursery- 
grown  trees  are  generally  superior  to  others. 

In  Transplanting  it  is  Important  to  take  up  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  roots  to  support  the  plant,  and  as  a  rule 
the  more  roots  the  better  the  conditions  for  growth. 
Very  long  roots  should  be  shortened  unless  the  tree  is 
removed  to  a  permanent  place,  in  which  case  all  the  good 
roots  should  be  left  on  the  tree.  All  bruised  or  broken 
roots  should  be  cut  off  in  either  case  and  the  top  of  the 


112  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FOEESTRY. 

tree  shortened  to  correspond.  In  transplanting  trees, 
they  should  be  set  at  least  one  or  two  inches  lower  in 
the  soil  than  they  formerly  stood,  and  the  roots  should 


FIG.  29. — Extra-good  roots  on  a  forest-grown  Elm,  used 
as  a  street  tree. 

be  spread  out  in  the  holes  without  crowding.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  plant  many  kinds  of  small  trees  in  furrows 
made  with  a  plough. 

Very  Large  Trees  (those  over  ?ix  inches  in  diameter) 
are  sometimes  successfully  planted  in  winter  by  taking 
them  up  with  a  ball  of  earth.  This  is  done  by  digging 
a  trench  around  the  tree,  late  in  the  autumn,  deep  enough 
to  cut  most  of  the  roots,  but  far  enough  away  from  the 
tree  to  leave  a  large  ball  of  earth.  The  trench  is  then 
filled  in  with  a  mulch  of  some  kind,  and  when  the  ground 
is  frozen  the  tree  is  moved,  with  the  ball  of  earth  at- 
tached, to  the  hole  which  has  been  previously  prepared 
and  kept  free  from  frost. 

After  Trees  Have  Been  Moved,  or  had  their  roots  short- 
ened in  some  other  way,  they  should  generally  not  be 
transplanted  again  for  at  least  one  or  two  years,  during 
which  time  they  will  have  overcome  the  injuries  done 
to  their  root  system.  The  time  which  should  thus  elapse 


NURSERY    PRACTICE. 


113 


will  vary  with  the  kind  of  tree,  and  also  with  the  amount 
of  injury  done.  Where  the  injury  is  severe  a  much  longer 
time  will  be  required  for  recovery  than  where  it  is 
slight. 

Time  to  Transplant.  Planting  of  trees  should  always 
be  done  when  they  are  dormant,  or  just  as  they  start 
into  growth  in  the  spring,  which  is  generally  from  the 
middle  to  last  of  April.  If  for  any  reason  it  is  desirable 


FIG.   30. — Moving  large   trees  in   winter.      (After   P.    S. 
Peterson  &  Co.) 


to  risk  the  moving  of  trees  late  in  the  spring,  after  the 
leaves  have  started,  they  should  be  cut  back  severely, 
all  the  leaves  removed,  and  great  pains  be  taken  to  se- 
cure all  the  roots  and  to  prevent  their  drying  out.  Very 
hardy  deciduous  trees,  as  the  Elm,  Cottonwood,  Box- 
elder  and  Ash,  can  often  be  successfully  moved  in  the 
fall  if  the  ground  is  moist  at  the  time  of  removal,  but 
great  care  must  be  taken  to  work  the  soil  in  very  com- 


114  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

pactly  between  the  roots,  so  that  there  will  be  no  large 
air-spaces  among  them.  If  the  trees  are  large,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  stake  them,  so  they  cannot  be  blown  about 
by  the  wind.  The  more  tender  trees  should  not  be  trans- 
planted in  the  Northern  States  in  autumn,  and  even  the 
hardiest  "kinds  should  never  be  moved  at  this  season 
unless  the  soil  is  moist. 

Transplanting  Evergreens.  When  seedling  cone-bear- 
ing Evergreens  are  two  years  old  they  should  be  trans- 
planted, and  this  should  be  done  about  once  in  three 
years  afterwards,  until  they  are  moved  to  their  perma- 
nent places.  As  Evergreens  are  very  sensitive  to  being 
moved,  this  requires  more  care  than  with  most  decidu- 
ous trees.  The  most  important  point  is  to  not  allow 
the  roots  to  have  even  the  appearance  of  being  dry.  In 
handling  small  Evergreens  in  the  field  it  is  often  a  good 
plan  to  keep  them  in  a  pail  containing  enough  water  to 
cover  their  roots  or  keep  them  in  wet  moss.  They  may 
be  transplanted  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground 
works  easily  and  the  roots  have  white  tips,  and  they 
may  be  safely  transplanted  even  up  to  the  time  that 
the  new  growth  shows  three  inches,  but  at  this  late  date 
more  care  must  be  taken  in  doing  the  work  than  when  it 
is  done  earlier.  Evergreens  can  sometimes  be  moved 
successfully  in  August,  or  even  in  the  autumn,  if  they  are 
to  be  carried  only  a  short  distance  and  the  conditions 
of  the  weather  and  land  are  favorable;  but  this  is  not 
a  time  for  general  planting,  and  it  is  seldom  advisable 
to  do  it  at  this  season. 

The  Very  General  Error  is  Current  that  June  is  the 
best  time  to  plant  out  Evergreens.  They  may  be  trans- 
planted at  this  season  successfully  if  the  conditions  are 
just  right  in  every  particular,  but  they  are  much  more 
liable  to  fail  then  than  when  the  work  is  done  earlier 
in  the  season.  At  whatever  time  of  the  year  Evergreens 


STUKSEKY    PRACTICE.  115 

are  to  be  moved,  the  work  should  be  done  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  protect  the  roots  from  having  even  the  appearance 
of  being  dry,  for  if  dried  ever  so  little  the  probabilities 
of  their  living  are  much  lessened.  The  kind  of  treat- 
ment that  would  be  considered  all  right  for  Apple-trees 
might  be  fatal  to  Evergreens,  as  they  are  much  more 
susceptible  to  injury  from  drying. 

In  addition  to  the  above  precautions  to  be  taken  when 
moving  Evergreens,  it  is  desirable  to  shorten  back  the 
limbs  about  one-third,  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  roots. 
Of  course  this  shortening  should  not  be  done  in  such  a 
way  as  to  disfigure  the  tree,  but  when  the  roots  are  in 
any  way  severely  mutilated,  the  whole  top  makes  more 
of  a  draft  on  them  for  moisture  than  the  roots  can  supply. 
This  pruning  is  not  so  necessary  in  the  case  of  young 
seedling  Evergreens  or  nursery-grown  trees  that  have 
been  recently  transplanted,  for  when  they  are  moved 
their  root  systems  are  not  seriously  injured. 

Very  Small  Evergreens  and  Other  Small  Plants  are 
often  set  in  trenches  made  with  a  spade,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
31.  For  this  method  the  soil  must  be  loose  and  yet 
sufficiently  compact  so  that  it  can  be  cut  with  a  spade 
and  not  crumble  before  the  plants  can  be  set  out.  The 
beds  are  made  about  six  feet  wide,  and  a  board  of  this 
length  and  six  inches  wide  should  be  used.  The  soil 
is  thrown  out  with  a  spade  (A)  to  the  depth  of  about 
six  inches,  but  no  wider  than  necessary  to  just  take  in  the 
roots.  The  plants  are  then  placed  in  position  by  hand 
and  a  little  soil  pushed  against  them  to  hold  them  in 
place.  (B)  The  trench  is  then  half  filled  and  the  soil 
firmly  compacted  by  the  feet.  The  remainder  of  the  soil 
is  then  put  in  and  levelled  off,  the  board  is  changed  to 
the-  other  side  of  the  row  first  planted,  and  the  planting 
is  continued  in  the  same  way  (C  and  D).  Such  elose 
planting  as  this  is  only  desirable  when  it  is  intended  to 


116 


PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN"    FORESTKY. 


give  special  care  to  the  plants,  as  by  shading  or  water- 
ing. Plants  should  not  remain  more  than  two  or  three 
years  in  so  close  a  bed  before  they  are  transplanted. 
When  it  is  desirable  to  set  out  small  seedlings  in  rows, 
instead  of  beds,  a  tight  line  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
board. 

Heeling- in.  This  term  is  applied  to  the  temporary 
covering  of  the  roots  of  trees  with  earth  to  keep  them 
from  drying  out  after  they  are  dug  and  until  they  are 
planted.  If  they  are  to  be  kept  for  only  a  few  days, 


FIG.  31. — Successive  steps  in  planting  young  Evergreen  or  other 
very  small  seedlings.  A,  Board  in  place  and  trench  partly  opened. 
B,  Seedlings  in  place  and  partly  covered.  C,  New  trench  partly 
opened.  D,  New  trench  with  seedlings  in  place. 


comparatively  little  care  is  needed  in  covering;  but  if 
they  are  to  be  kept  for  several  weeks  or  over  winter, 
especially  if  the  weather  is  dry,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  work  the  fine  soil  in  among  the  roots  and  to  pack  it 
solid.  A  good  way  of  doing  this  is  as  follows:  Select 
a  dry,  mellow  piece  of  ground  and  dig  a  trench  just  large 
enough  to  take  in  the  roots  of  the  trees  when  laid  close 
together  in  a  single  row.  Place  the  trees  or  seedlings 
in  this  trench  in  an  upright  position,  a  few  at  a  time,  and 
cover  the  roots  firmly  and  deeply  with  soil  taken  from 


NURSERY    PRACTICE. 


117 


close  in  front  of  the  first  trench,  thus  making  a  trench 
for  the  next  row.  If  trees  that  are  of  questionable  hardi- 
ness are  to  remain  heeled-in  all  winter,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  bend  the  tops  down  and  cover  with  earth.  This  is 
only  necessary  for  winter  protection.  The  neglect  to 
properly  heel-in  nursery  stock  as  soon  as  it  is  received 
is  undoubtedly  a  frequent  cause  of  failure.  This  is 
especially  so  in  the  case  of  seedlings  which  are  generally 
wintered  in  bundles,  as  they  are  liable  to  dry  out  in 
winter.  The  bundles  must  be  opened  if  large,  and  in 
any  case  the  soil  should  be  packed  in  around  them  very 
solid  by  the  feet  or  otherwise. 

Trees  and  Cuttings  Will  Sometimes  Get  so  Dry  in  ship- 
ment that  the  bark  shrivels.  In  such  cases  the  best 
treatment  is  to  bury  them  entirely  for  a  few  days,  which 


FIG.  32. — Heeling-in.     Various  stages   of  the  operation.     Row  of 
trees  with  roots  covered;  row  bent  down  and  the  tops  covered. 

will  often  enable  them  to  recover.  Soaking  in  water 
will  answer  the  same  purpose,  but  unless  very  carefully 
done  is  likely  to  injure  the  wood. 


118  PRINCIPLES   OF    AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


PRUNING. 

Pruning  Should  be  Avoided  as  much  as  possible  and 
yet  be  done  sufficiently  to  secure  the  effect  desired.  If 
it  is  begun  early  in  the  life  of  a  tree  no  large  branches 
need  ever  be  removed,  the  most  desirable  pruning  being 
the  directing  of  the  growth  by  pinching  off  the  buds  that 
would  develop  into  undesirable  branches;  but  this  is 
impracticable  on  a  large  scale,  and  for  this  reason,  in 
ordinary  practice,  it  is  often  necessary  to  do  more  exten- 
sive pruning. 

The  Purpose  in  Pruning  Trees  is  to  give  them  forms 
that  are  desirable  for  the  purpose  intended.  For  ex- 
ample, a  tree  for  the  lawn  or  windbreak  may  be  most 
desirable  when  covered  with  branches  even  down  to  the 
ground,  while  street  trees  should  have  a  trunk  free  from 
branches  for  eight  or  ten  feet  from  the  ground.  Many 
of  the  Evergreens,  and  some-other  trees  used  for  ornament, 
naturally  take  on  so  regular  and  desirable  a  form  that  it 
is  not  necessary  to  prune  them,  except  perhaps  to  pinch 
or  cut  off  an  extra  leading  shoot  that  is  likely  to  make 
a  forked  top,  while  the  White  Elm,  Soft  Maple,  and  others 
need  occasional  pruning  to  remove  or  shorten  awkward 
branches,  at  least  while  the  tree  is  young  and  growing 
rapidly. 

The  Proper  Time  for  Pruning  is  determined  by  the 
effect  of  the  operation  upon  the  health  of  the  tree.  Dead 
branches  may  be  safely  removed  at  any  season.  The 
removal  of  live  branches  during  the  growing  season  less- 
ens the  leaf  surface  and  hence  checks  growth.  Pruning 
when  the  tree  is  dormant  results  in  a  more  vigorous  growth 
in  the  remaining  branches.  Wounds  made  by  pruning 
just  as  trees  are  starting  into  growth  do  not  heal  over 
as  readily  as  those  made  earlier  in  the  spring  or  during 
the  period  of  active  growth  in  June.  Wounds  made 


NURSERY    PRACTICE.  119 

in  autumn  or  early  winter  generally  heal  over  well,  but 
are  more  likely  to  cause  bad  injuries  than  if  made  at 
the  close  of  the  winter.  These  considerations  and  prac- 
tical experience  have  brought  about  the  following  con- 
clusions as  to  the  best  time  for  pruning: 

Large  Branches  are  Most  Safely  Removed  during  the 
latter  part  of  winter,  before  growth  starts.  Small  branches 
may  be  safely  removed  at  this  time,  or  during  the  grow- 
ing season,  preferably  about  the  middle  of  June;  but 


FIG.  33. — Showing  the  proper  place  to  make  the  cut  in  pruning. 
A  wound  made  on  the  dotted  line  .4 — B  will  be  promptly  healed; 
one  made  on  the  line  C — D  or  E—F  will  not.  In  Fig.  34  the 
lower  branch  was  cut  off  too  far  from  the  trunk.  (After  Goff.) 

such  very  hardy  trees  as  the  Elm,  Ash,  Box-elder,  White 
Willow,  Catalpa,  and  Cottonwood  may  be  safely  pruned 
at  any  time  in  autumn,  winter,  or  spring,  while  the  Moun- 
tain Ash,  Apple,  Plum,  and  Wild  Cherry  are  liable  to 
injury  if  pruned  at  any  but  the  most  favorable  seasons. 
Among  the  Directions  to  be  Followed  in  Good  Pruning 
are  the  following: 

1.  Do  not  cut  off  a    single    branch   unless   you   have 
a  good  idea  of  what  you  wish  to  accomplish  and  the  prob- 
able effect  of  so  doing  on  the  tree;  better  not  prune  at 
all  than  to  do  it  without  considering  the  consequences. 

2.  Avoid  doing  very  much  pruning  at  one   time,  es- 
pecially on  small  street  trees,  which,  if  they  have  all 


120 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN'    FORESTRY. 


their  branches  removed  from  the  trunks  to  their  final 
height,  are  likely  to  make  too  much  growth  at  the  top 
for  the  trunk  to  support  well  in  high  winds.  A  better 
way  is  to  remove  a  part  of  the  lower  branches  and  shorten 
back  in  summer  those  that  are  to  be  removed  later;  by 
such  treatment  a  lar<re  part  of  the  strength  of  the  tree 
goes  into  the  top  without  increasing  the  size  of  the  lower 
branches,  which  may  be  removed  in  a  year  or  two  with- 
out injury  to  the  tree. 

3.  After  pruning,  paint  the  wounds  with   good    white 
lead  paint,  to  keep  the  wood  from  decaying  and  the  in- 


FIG.  34. — Showing  how  to  make  the  cut  in  pruning  large  branches. 
The  upper  cut,  all  made  from  above,  permits  the  branch  to  split 
down.  The  left  cut,  first  made  partly  from  below,  prevents 
splitting  down.  (After  Goff.) 

juries  from  becoming  permanent.  This  is  not  so  neces- 
sary on  very  hardy  trees  as  on  those  that  are  somewhat 
tender. 

4.  Where  branches  rub   together,  it  is  generally  best 
to  remove  one  of  them. 

5.  Where   bad   crotches   are  being  formed  by  the  de- 
velopment  of   two   leaders,    severely   check   the   growth 
of  one  of  them  by  shortening  it,  thus  throwing  more  sap 
into  the  other  and  making  it  the  leading  shoot. 


NURSERY   PRACTICE.  121 

6.  Prevent  the  formation  of    long    side  branches   by 
shortening  those  that  are  liable  to  become  too  long.     This 
is  especially   desirable  with  the  Soft  Maple,  which  has 
a  tendency  to  form  long  branches  that  are  likely  to  break 
off  unless  occasionally  pruned. 

7.  Where  trees  have  lost  their  leaders,  prune  so  as  to 
develop  one  of  the  side  branches   into  a  leading  shoot. 


FIG.    35. — Sections   of    trunk   of    tree  showing  wounds   properly 
healed  over.     (After   Hartig.) 


This  the  tree  always  attempts  to  do   itself,  but  a  little 
judicious  pruning  will  greatly  aid  it. 

S.  Every  species  of  tree  and  shrub   has  its  own   nat- 
ural form,  and  in  pruning  do  not  try  to  make  all  of  them 


122  PRINCIPLES   OF    AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

of  one  shape.  Study  the  natural  form  of  each  kind  of 
tree  and  encourage  the  development  of  this  form. 

9.  When  trees  are  full  of  frost  the  wood  cracks  very 
easily;  therefore  do  not  prune  in  very  cold  weather,  for 
bad  wounds  may  then  be  easily  formed. 

Treatment  of  Crooked  Trees.  It  is  common  to  have 
some  trees  in  the  nursery  that  are  of  vigorous,  healthy 
growth,  but  so  crooked  as  to  be  nearly  worthless.  The 
proper  treatment  for  most  of  our  shade  trees  when  in 
this  condition  in  the  nursery,  if  anything  is  to  be  made 
of  them,  is  to  cut  them  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground 
early  in  the  spring  and  then  select  one  of  the  good,  strong 
sprouts  that  come  from  near  the  roots  of  each  tree,  train 
it  into  a  straight  stem,  and  cut  away  the  others.  Treated 
in  this  way  well-formed  trees  may  soon  be  grown.  Such 
treatment  may  also  be  desirable  with  small  street  trees 
that  have  their  stems  hopelessly  injured.  However, 
trees  that  to  the  novice  may  seem  hopelessly  crooked 
may  only  have  crooks  in  them  that  will  be  outgrown 
in  a  few  vears. 


STREET  TREES. 

Success  with  Street  Trees  is  perhaps  more  dependent  on 
good  soil  about  the  roots  than  on  any  other  one  factor. 
If  the  land  is  so  very  sandy  or  gravelly  as  to  be  subject 
to  drought,  at  least  two  cubic  yards  (two  full  two-horse 
loads)  should  be  taken  from  where  each  tree  is  to  be  planted 
and  the  same  amount  of  good  clay  or  loam  substituted 
for  it.  If  in  subsequent  years  the  trees  outgrow  the  limits 
of  the  material  supplied,  more  of  it  should  be  added, 
and  if  this  consists  largely  of  stable  manure,  so  much 
the  better,  provided  it  does  not  come  into  contact  with 
the  roots  of  the  trees.  It  is  important  to  do  this  work 


NURSERY   PRACTICE.  123 

thoroughly,  for  one  tree  well  planted  is  better  than  a 
dozen  poorly  set  out. 

Kinds  of  Trees.  The  best  trees  for  street  planting 
in  this  country  are  the  White  Elm,  Hackberry,  Green 
Ash,  Basswood,  Box-elder,  Norway  Maple,  and  Soft 
Maple.  All  of  these  trees  do  well  in  good  soil,  and  with 
the  exception  of  the  Soft  Maple  they  all  do  well,  in  rather 
inferior  land.  Evergreens,  especially  the  White  Pine, 
may  sometimes  be  used  to  advantage  along  narrow  drives, 
but  they  are  seldom  desirable  as  street  trees.  The  trees 
planted  should  be  about  two  to  four  inches  in  diameter 
near  the  ground,  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  and  of  thrifty 
growth.  Much  larger  trees  are  sometimes  set  out,  but 
it  is  not  advisable,  as  a  rule,  to  plant  those  that  are  over 
four  inches  in  diameter.  Smaller  trees  are  often  planted 
and  do  well  if  properly  cared  for,  but  need  more  atten- 
tion directing  their  growth  than  those  that  are  larger. 
But  small,  thrifty  trees  are  much  better  for  street  plant- 
ing than  large  stunted  trees.  In  all  cases  it  is  more  im- 
portant to  have  plenty  of  good  roots  than  a  large  top, 
as  a  top  can  soon  be  developed  if  the  roots  are  good. 

Distance  Apart.  The  distance  between  trees  depends 
on  the  kind  planted  and  the  quality  of  the  land.  On 
rich  land  the  trees  named  should  be  put  forty  feet  apart, 
in  fairly  good  soil  about  thirty  feet,  and  in  poor  soil  twenty 
feet  apart.  This  gives  sufficient  room  for  good  develop- 
ment, but  where  a  quick  effect  is  wanted,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  set  the  permanent  trees  forty  feet  apart  and  use 
Cotton  wood,  Willow,  or  similar  fast-growing  trees  to 
alternate  with  one  of  the  kinds  named  as  desirable,  with 
the  expectation  of  cutting  out  the  less  valuable  when 
it  shall  have  commenced  to  crowd  the  more  desirable 
kinds. 

Planting.  Provided  the  soil  is  in  the  proper  condition, 
the  next  consideration  is  the  proper  planting  of  the  tree. 


124 


PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


The  preparation  for  this  should  consist  in  digging  a  hole 
of  sufficient  size  to  take  in  the  roots  without  crowding. 
If  the  subsoil  is  very  solid  clay,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
loosened  up,  and  where  practicable,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
dig  a  trench  to  the  loose  soil  over  a  water  pipe  or  sewer, 
for  by  this  means  the  roots  get  into  loose  soil,  and  drain- 
age is  secure,  which  is  often  much  needed  on  such  land. 


FIG.  36. — An  overgrown  wound  where  branch  has  been  cut  off, 
but  decay  started  before  wound  had  healed  over  and  is  liable 
to  continue  farther.  (After  Hartig.) 


Sometimes  a  very  stiff  hardpan  can  be  broken  up  to  ad- 
vantage by  exploding  a  small  dynamite  cartridge  in  a 
deep  hole  made  with  a  crowbar. 

Before  Setting  the  tree  it  should  have  all  broken  and 
dead  roots  cut  off.  It  should  then  be  set  an  inch  or  two 
deeper  than  it  had  been  growing,  the  discoloration  above 
the  roots  indicating  the  depth  at  which  it  had  stood. 
If.  however,  good  drainage  cannot  be  secured,  the  tree 


STUKSERY    PEACTICE. 


125 


can  be  planted  less  deeply  and  then  have  a  mound  made 
around  it.  Fill  in  about  the  roots  slowly,  being  careful 
(should  the  tree  have  a  great  number  of  fibrous  roots) 
to  work  the  earth  well  in  among  them  and  under  the  butt 
of  the  tree.  Fine  soil  free  from  large  stones  should  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  Pack  the  soil  in  firmly,  if  reason- 
ably dry,  with  the  heels,  or,  better  still,  with  a  rammer, 
making  it  as  solid  as  possible  around  the  roots.  The 
object  in  doing  this  is  to  leave  no  air-spaces  about  them. 
It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  put  water  into  the  hole  before 


FIG.  37. — Soft  Maple  not  pruned  since  it  was  planted  out.     Liable 
v      to  break  in  its  crotches  at  any  time.     A  bad  form. 
'  FIG.  38. — Soft  Maple  once  pruned,  showing  close  head  that  is  not 
i      liable  to  break  down.     A  good  form. 

FIG.  39. — Soft  Maple  several  times  pruned,  preserving  a  main  central 
axis.     A  good  form. 


the  tree  is  set,  but  it  may  be  put  in  when  the  roots  are 
just  covered  and  allowed  to  soak  away  before  the  re- 
maining soil  is  put  in.  As  a  rule,  however,  little  is  gained 
by  watering  if  the  trees  have  not  leaved  out  and  the 
moist  soil  is  packed  firmly  around  the  roots.  Water 
is  most  needed  after  growth  starts. 


126  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

Mulching.  Newly  planted  street  trees  are  much  helped 
by  a  mulch  of  straw,  hay.  or  well-rotted  manure.  The 
latter  is  best,  as  it  also  furnishes  plant  food,  and  hot  manure 
is  liable  to  injure  the  trunk  if  piled  against  it.  These 
materials  prevent  the  soil  from  drying  out,  and  is  espe- 
cially beneficial  if  the  trees  are  artificially  watered. 

Watering  should  be  done  thoroughly  or  not  at  all. 
One  good  watering  should  keep  the  ground  moist  for 
two  or  three  weeks,  in  the  dryest  weather  we  have,  if 
the  land  is  heavily  mulched  when  the  water  is  applied. 
For  a  good  watering  in  a  dry  time  at  least  one  barrel  of 
water  should  be  given  to  each  street  or  lawn  tree,  and 
for  large  trees  very  much  more  water 
should  be  used.  A  hollow  should  be 
made  around  the  tree  and  covered  with 
mulch  before  the  water  is  applied. 
This  same  amount  of  water  might  be 
applied  at  the  rate  of  one  or  two  pail- 
fuls  a  day  and  not  be  of  the  least 
benefit  to  the  tree  if  applied  to  the  bare 
surface  of  the  ground. 

The  Pruning  of  Deciduous  Street 
Trees  at  the  time  they  are  set  out  is  an 
important  matter.  If  the  trees  are  very 
tall  and  slender,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut 
them  off  at  about  ten  feet  from  the 
ground  and  trim  off  all  side  branches, 
il-  *  as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  For  trees  that 

have  been  pulled  from  the  woods  this 

FIG.  40. — Elm  street  .  ,  ., 

tree  prope rly  1S   generally  the   best  treatment,  while 

trimmed  for  plant-  for  nursery-grown  trees  that  have  had 

plenty  of  room  to  develop  a  good  top, 

it  may  sometimes  be  best  to  trim  so  as  to  leave  part  of 

the  top.     If  the  trees  are  trimmed  to  bare  poles  before 

planting,  some  little  pruning  will  be  required  each  season 


NURSERY    PRACTICE. 


127 


for  a  number  of  years  to  develop  good  tops,  while  if 
they  had  well-formed  tops  in  the  nursery  and  were 
shortened  back  at  planting  time  much  less  attention  will 
be  necessary,  but  the  experience  of  large  planters  seems 
to  show  best  results  from  close  pruning. 

In  a  row  of  Elms  or  other  trees  there  will  often  be 
found  peculiar  individual  shapes.  Some  of  Uie  trees 
will  take  on  desirable  forms,  while  others  will  bt>  spread- 
ing and  awkward,  and  perhaps  have  a  tendency  f*  crack 


FIG.  41.— Elm-tree  that  has  been  planted  five  years  and  was  pruned 
to  a  bare  pole  when  set  out. 


in  the  crotches.  In  some  cases  a  little  extra  pruning 
will  bring  such  unfortunates  into  shape,  but  often  they 
are  incorrigible,  and  are  best  replaced  by  other  trees  with 
better  forms. 

Protection  should  always  be  given  street  trees  as  soon 
as  they  are  set  out,  and  this  should  consist  of  something 
that  will  protect  them  from  sun-scald,  gnawing  of  horses, 


128 


PRINCIPLES   OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


and  whittling  by  thoughtless  boys.  A  good  temporary 
cover  is  afforded  by  wrapping  the  trunk  with  gunny 
sacking  or  similar  material,  but  a  more  desirable  protec- 
tion is  afforded  by  a  slatted  wooden  frame  or  box  for 
each  tree. 

The  Packing  of  Nursery  Stock  is  a  matter  that  calls 
for  much  experience  to  adapt  it  to  the  various  kinds  of 
nursery  stock  shipped  and  to  the  method  of  transporta- 
tion. 

Practically  all  the  nursery  stock  that  is  used  in  forest- 
planting  in  this  country  is  best  shipped  when  dormant. 


FIG.  42. — Cross-section  of  a  box  packed  with  two-year-old  Green 
Ash,  Box-elder,  and  Birch  in  bundles  of  100  each. 


It  will  generally  be  found  that  the  box  is  the  safest  pack- 
age to  use  in  the  handling  of  it,  but  sometimes  it  may 
be  convenient  to  ship  in  bales.  Small  packages  may  be 
sent  in  bundles  or  in  boxes  by  mail,  and  for  this  purpose 
they  can  best  be  packed  in  clean  sphagnum  moss,  wrapped 
with  oil-paper  and  afterward  with  brown  paper.  Pack- 
ages that  are  to  go  by  express  do  not  require  as  careful 
packing  as  those  that  are  to  go  by  freight,  as  they  are 
not  so  liable  to  be  neglected.  In  shipping  by  freight  it 


NURSERY    PRACTICE.          ,  129 

is  important  to  pack  with  exceeding  care,  so  that  the 
goods  will  be  safe  even  if  considerably  delayed. 

Puddling.  All  dormant  nursery  stock  should  have 
the  roots  "puddled"  before  being  shipped.  This  opera- 
tion consists  in  dipping  the  roots  of  the  trees  into  a  thin 
clay  mud.  A  convenient  way  to  do  this  is  to  dig  a  small 
deep  hole  in  which  the  mud  is  prepared.  Such  treat- 
ment is  quite  a  protection  to  the  roots  against  drought. 


FIG.  43. — Cross-section  of  a  box  packed  with  Pine  Seedlings.  The 
roots  are  covered  with  moist  sphagnum  moss,  and  the  tops  are 
not  covered.  In  .actual  practice  the  plants  would  be  much 
closer  together. 


The  Best  Material  in  which  to  pack  nursery  stock  is 
probably  moist  (not  wet)  sphagnum  moss,  but  as  this 
is  often  expensive  and  out  of  the  question  in  many  locali- 
ties, peat,  excelsior,  or  wet  chaff  will  be  found  good  sub- 
stitutes. Of  late  years  excelsior  has  been  growing  in 
favor  with  our  best  nurserymen  as  packing  material. 
The  material  used  for  this  purpose  is  such  as  is  generally 
wasted  at  shingle  mills.  Before  using,  it  should  be  thor- 


130 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


oughly  water-soaked.     It  has  the  advantage  of  not  heat- 
ing and  yet  retaining  moisture  for  a  long  time. 

Nursery  Stock  in  Transit  is  liable  to  several  injuries. 
One  of  the  most  common  is  for  it  to  become  too  dry  and 
in  this  way  lose  its  vitality,  and  yet  it  often  happens 
in  shipping  nursery  stock  that  is  to  be  several  weeks 
in  transit  that  it  is  best  to  pack  it  so  dry  that  the  plants 
will  perhaps  shrivel  a  little,  since  if  packed  moist  it  will 


FIG.  44. — Plants  assembled  together  for  packing  in  a  bale. 

often  decay.  When  moss  is  to  be  used  for  packages 
that  are  liable  to  be  a  month  or  more  on  the  way,  it  should 
be  thoroughly  dried  so  that  there  will  be  little  moisture 
apparent  in  handling  it.  In  such  cases  the  boxes  should  be 
thoroughly  lined  with  paper  before  they  are  packed. 
Paper  lining  for  boxes  is  also  very  desirable  when  nur- 
sery stock  is  to  be  shipped  during  excessively  cold  weather, 
as  it  aids  greatly  in  keeping  out  frost. 

In  shipping  nursery  stock  in  warm  weather  it  may 
sometimes  be  desirable  in  the  case  of  evergreens  to  pack 
the  roots  in  moist  moss  and  leave  the  tops  exposed,  ship- 
ping the  box  without  any  cover,  or  if  covered  at  all,  using 
only  burlap  or  similar  material.  In  packing  such  a  box 


XURSEBY    PRACTICE. 


131 


it  is  a  good  plan  to  remove  one  end  and  pack  in  alter- 
nate layers  of  packing  material  and  plants,  and  when 
the  box  is  full  nail  on  the  end.  In  this  way  the  plants 
can  be  put  in  very  solid.  Fig.  43  shows  this  method. 


FIG.  45. — The  bale  ready  for  covering. 

It  is  Customary  to  Have  Seedlings  tied  in  bunches  of 
about  100  each  when  they  are  shipped,  and  whenever 
small  stock  is  shipped  with  large  stock  it  should  be  in 
a  separate  bundle.  It  is  seldom  necessary  or  desirable 
to  put  packing  material  about  the  tops,  but  it  should  be 
confined  to  the  roots  and  the  centre  of  the  bundles,  and 
the  tops  should  be  left  somewhat  free,  so  they  will  not 
heat.  In  packing  nursery  stock  in  this  way  it  may  be 


FIG.  46. — The  bale  completed  by  covering  with  burlap  and 
labelled  for  shipping. 

desirable  to  carefully  nail  cleats  across  the  box  after 
the  stock  has  been  put  in,  to  hold  it  in  place  and  prevent 
its  shifting  about  in  transit,  and  sometimes  it  may  be 
desirable  to  ventilate  the  cases  in  which  they  are  packed. 


132  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN"   FORESTRY. 

In  Packing  a  Bundle  great  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  packing  material  is  well  worked  in  between  and  around 
the  roots,  so  as  to  exclude  a  free  circulation  of  air  about 
them.  After  this  has  been  done,  and  the  package  well 
tied  together,  it  should  be  covered  about  the  roots  with 
more  packing  material  and  wrapped  .with  burlap  or  sim- 
ilar material  wrell  sewed  on.  and  the  tops  should  be  pro- 
tected either  with  burlap  or  with  straw  or  grass. 

SOME    IMPORTANT    THINGS    TO    REMEMBER    ARE: 

1.  //  the  roots  of  trees  are  frozen  out  of  the  ground  and 
thawed  again  in  contact  with  the  air,  they  will  probably 
die. 

2.  //  the  frozen  roots  of  hardy  plants  are  well  buried 
in  the  ground  before  thawing  at  all,  they  will  be  unin- 
jured. 

3.  Deciduous  trees  that  are  received  in  a  shrivelled  con- 
dition may  often  be  revived  by  burying  them,  tops  and 
all,  with  earth  for  a  few  days. 

4.  Manure  should  never  be  placed  in  contact  with  the 
roots  of  trees  when  they  are  set,  but  good  black  soil  should 
preferably  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

5.  //  trees  are  watered  it  is  important  to  keep  the  soil 
around  them  cultivated  or  covered  with  a  good  mulch, 
otherwise  the  surface  will  bake  hard  and  mil  lose  moisture 
very  fast. 

6.  Small  thrifty  trees  are  very  much  to  be  preferred 
for  transplanting  purposes  to  those  that  are  large,  as  the 
latter  are  liable  to  be  checked  in  their  growth  by  being 
moved. 

7.  The   roots  of   coniferous   Evergreens  should   not  be 
allowed  to  have  even  the  appearance  of  dryness,  as  a 
very  little  drying  will  prevent  their  growing. 

8.  Spring  is  the  best  time  to  move  all  kinds  of  nursery 


NURSERY   PRACTICE.  133 

stock,  and  as  a  rule  plants  do  best  when  transplanted 
before  the  buds  start. 

9.  Autumn  is  a  good  time  for  transplanting  our  hardi- 
est deciduous  trees  providing  that  the  soil  conditions  are 
favorable,  but  it  is  not  a  good  time  to  move  coniferous 
Evergreens. 

10.  Coniferous  Evergreens  may  be  safely  moved  about 
the  first  of  August,  after  they  have  ripened  up  the  first 
growth  of  the  season,  if  moved  carefully  with  a  bah1  of 
earth,  but  when  handled  at  this  time  they  require  much 
careful  attention. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FOREST  PROTECTION. 

INJURIES  TO  TREES. 

THE  causes  of  injury  to  tree-growth  are  many  and 
various,  some  affecting  principally  the  cultivated  trees 
in  windbreaks  and  shelter-belts,  and  others  affecting  the 
forest  plantations  and  large  areas  of  timber.  Some  injure 
or  destroy  the  trees  or  tree  seeds,  and  others  do  damage 
to  the  land  on  which  they  grow. 

Insects  occasionally  do  an  immense  amount  of  damage 
to  forests,  and  it  is  often  impracticable  to  combat  them 
successfully  on  a  large  scale.  We  must  often,  therefore, 
depend  on  their  natural  enemies  to  hold  these  pests  in 
check.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  insects  of  any  one  kind 
are  very  abundant  over  a  long  series  of  years,  but  they 
are  occasionally  nearly  destroyed  by  the  multiplication 
of  their  parasites  or  other  natural  enemies. 

Saw-Flies  and  Tent-Caterpillars.  At  present  perhaps 
one  of  the  most  serious  injuries  to  cultivated  trees 
results  from  the  neglect  to  take  precautions  against  leaf- 
eating  insects,  such  as  saw-flies  and  tent-caterpillars. 
These  injuries  may  be  largely  prevented  by  the  use  of 
Paris  green  in  water  applied  by  means  of  a  force  pump, 
using  it  from  a  barrel  carried  in  a  wagon  or  on  a  stone  boat. 
An  ordinary  spraying  nozzle  should  be  used,  with  a  suf- 
ficient length  of  hose  to  reach  up  into  the  tree.  In  order 
to  reach  the  tops  of  the  trees  it  may  be  necessary  to  have 

134 


FOREST   PROTECTION.  135 

a  raised  platform  on  the  wagon,  and  to  attach  the  hose 
nozzle  to  the  end  of  a  long  bamboo  pole.  In  most  prairie 
groves,  this  is  practicable,  but  with  very  high  trees  it 
is  very  difficult,  if  not  entirely  impracticable.  For  most 
leaf-eating  insects,  Paris  green  is  best  applied  in  water  at 
the  rate  of  one  pound  of  poison  to  150  gallons  of  water. 
When  used  dry,  mix  with  cheap  flour  at  the  rate  of  one 
pound  of  poison  to  thirty  pounds  of  flour  or  one  pound 
of  Paris  green  to  100  pounds  of  air-slaked  lime. 

For  Sucking  Insects,  such  as  plant  lice  and  Box-elder 
bugs,  Paris  green  is  worthless,  and  the  remedies  used 


FIG.  47  — White  Willow  windbreak  seriously  injured  by  successive 
attacks  of  saw-fly  larvae. 

must  be  those  that  will  kill  by  contact,  such  as  tobacco 
water  made  the  color  of  strong  tea,  whale-oil  soap, 
and  kerosene  emulsion.  In  the  case  of  small  trees  that 
can  be  easily  enclosed  in  a  tent  the  best  remedy  is  to- 
bacco smoke. 

Borers  Cause  much  loss  in  forests  by  tunnelling  through 
the  wood.    They  generally  prefer  trees  that  are  some- 


136  PRINCIPLES   OF    AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 

what  weakened,  and  such  trees  may  occasionally  be  left 
as  traps,  and  when  badly  infested  burned,  and  in  this 
way  large  numbers  of  borers  of  some  kinds  may  be 
destroyed.  Trees  that  are  badly  attacked  should  as  a 
rule  be  removed. 

Mice  and  Rabbits.  Seedlings  and  small  trees  of  some 
kinds  are  liable  to  injury  from  rodents,  such  as  mice  and 
rabbits,  which  gnaw  the  bark  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  perhaps  girdle  the  tree.  They  are  most  likely 
to  do  this  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  for  this 
furnishes  them  with  a  protection  under  which  they  Dan 
do  their  mischief  without  fear  of  being  molested.  In  the 
case  of  small  seedlings,  such  injuries  may  be  largely  pre- 
vented by  ploughing  a  furrow  or  setting  boards  on  edge 
around  the  seed-bed.  If,  after  each  snowfall,  the  snow 
is  trodden  down  so  as  to  make  a  solid  path  between  the 
seedlings  and  the  grass  or  woodland  whence  the  mice 
come,  they  will  be  kept  out,  as  they  will  not  try  to  work 
through  the  solid  snow.  Seedlings  that  are  badly  girdled 
in  winter  should  generally  be  cut  off  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  to  encourage  sprouts  from  the  roots.  To  pre- 
vent the  gnawing  of  larger  trees,  paint  the  trunks  with 
a  cement  or  lime  wash  made  rather  thick  and  containing 
Paris  green  in  the  proportion  of  one  tablespoonful  of 
Paris  green  to  a  pailful  of  the  wash.  If  skim-milk  is 
used  in  mixing  the  wash,  instead  of  water,  the  material 
sticks  better.  Trees  that  are  gnawed  badly  may  often 
be  saved  by  coating  the  injured  surface  with  grafting- 
wax,  blue  clay,  or  other  similar  material,  soon  after  t!:e 
damage  is  done,  so  as  to  prevent  the  seasoning  of  the 
wood,  and  thus  give  it  a  chance  to  heal  over.  Where 
the  injury  is  close  to  the  ground,  it  should  be  covered 
with  earth. 

The  Pocket  Gopher.  Trees  are  sometimes  injured 
by  pocket  gophers  eating  the  roots.  Trapping  or  poison- 


FOREST   PROTECTION.  137 

ing  may  be  resorted  to,  or  bisulphide  of  carbon  may  be 
used  to  suffocate  them  in  their  burrows. 

Birds.  Most  of  our  birds  are  helpful  in  various  ways, 
such  as  distributing  seeds  and  in  destroying  injurious 
insects,  and  such  small  injurious  animals  as  mice  and 
gophers.  They  also  add  to  the  beauty  of  our  woods 
and  fields,  and  to  our  pleasure  and  recreation.  But 
some  kinds  are  provbkingly  injurious  by  eating  the  seeds 
we  wish  to  gather,  or  by  digging  up  newly  sown  seeds. 
Where  they  are  troublesome  on  seed-beds,  they  may  be 
kept  away  by  covering  the  bed  with  wire  netting,  which 
will  also  serve  to  keep  away  other  animals.  If  only  birds 
are  troublesome,  mosquito  netting  may  be  used,  or  the 
seeds  may  be  given  a  light  coating  of  red  lead  and  dried 
in  land  plaster  or  flour  before  sowing. 

The  sap-sucker  does  considerable  injury  to  some  trees 
by  making  holes  in  the  bark  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
insects  which  go  there  to  feed  on  -the  sap.  They  are 
sometimes  so  very  injurious  that  it  is  necessary  to  destroy 
them.  The  Apple,  Box-elder,  Maple,  and  most  other 
trees  are  subject  to  their  injuries. 

Cattle.  The  pasturing  of  cows,  horses,  sheep,  and 
other  animals  in  the  woodlands  is  generally  a  poor  practice, 
as  these  animals  browse  off  many  of  the  young  seedlings, 
especially  those  of  deciduous  trees,  such  as  the  Oak, 
Bass  wood,  Cherry,  and  others,  though  they  seldom  ea,;. 
coniferous  trees.  They  also  compact  the  ground,  and  de- 
stroy many  small  seedlings  by  their  continued  tramp- 
ing, especially  when  present  in  large  numbers.  This 
is  especially  true  of  sheep  on  the  Western  forest  reserves. 
Deer,  moose,  elk,  and  other  similar  animals  are  likewise 
injurious  in  forests,  and  when  abundant  may  do  much 
damage,  though  on  account  of  their  comparatively  small 
number  they  seldom  do  more  than  slight  injury. 

Forest  and  Pasture.    When  forests  are  used  as  pas- 


138 


PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


ture,  the  cattle  will  eat  the  foliage  of  many  species,  pro- 
vided it  is  within  their  reach.  They  also  trample  on  the 
young  seedlings  and  destroy  them  in  this  wray.  As  a 
result,  all  good  foresters  are,  on  general  principles,  op- 
posed to  the  pasturing  of  cattle  in  woodlands.  Espe- 


FIG.  48. — Seedlings  are  sometimes  set  close  to  stumps  to  protect 
them  from  the  trampling  of  cattle. 

cially  is  this  the  case  where  the  trees  are  of  the  broad- 
leaved  species,  which  are  preferred  by  cattle.  However, 
in  the  case  of  well-established  forests  in  which  there  is 
no  special  desire  for  a  renewal  of  growth,  no  great  injury 
can  come  from  moderate  pasturing.  Cattle  are  rigidly 
excluded  from  most  European  forests,  but  in  some  of 
the  more  remote  districts,  where  timber  is  still  quite 
cheap,  it  is  customary  to  pasture  forests.  Of  course, 


FOREST    PROTECTION.  139 

where  the  range  is  large  and  not  fully  stocked,  the  injury 
is  much  less  than  where  the  range  is  crowded.  This 
combination  of  forest  and  pasture  has  led  to  the  use  of 
several  methods  of  protecting  young  seedlings  against 
cattle,  among  the  first  of  which  might  be  mentioned 
the  planting  of  seedling  conifers  between  the  buttresses 
of  old  stumps,  where  it  would  be  very  unlikely  that  the 
cattle  would  step  on  them.  It  is  also  practised  to  pro- 
tect the  seedlings  by  driving  two  strong  stakes  in  the 
ground  near  them,  and  occasionally,  over  a  considerable 
acreage,  the  cattle  and  deer  may  be  fenced  out  until 
the  trees  are  so  large  that  they  will  not  injure  them. 
Under  some  conditions,  the  eating  off  of  the  leaves  from 
the  sides  of  the  trunk  of  saplings  would  prove  a  desirable 
pruning.  It  is  very  certain  that  while  forests  and  pas- 
tures cannot  often  be  very  well  combined  together,  yet 
it  is  possible  to  combine  them  under  some  conditions. 
It  is  quite  common  to  see  the  new  growth  of  spruce  and 
fir  in  European  forests  protected  from  the  browsing  of 
deer  by  covering  the  tips  of  the  young  shoots  with  a 
little  coal  tar  or  common  cotton  batting.  The  cotton 
batting  seems  to  be  very  disagreeable  to  the  deer,  and 
to  afford  about  as  good  protection  as  the  coal  tar.  It 
is,  however,  rather  more  difficult  to  put  on. 

Severe  Winters.  These  may  injure  many  kinds  of 
young  seedlings,  which  when  two  or  three  years  old  will 
be  perfectly  hardy.  Seedlings  of  such  kinds  should  be 
dug  at  the  end  of  the  first  season's  growth  and  be 
heeled-in  over  winter,  or  protected  where  they  grow  by 
a  mulch  or  earth  covering  in  winter. 

Alternate  Freezing  and  Thawing.  Seedlings  are  often 
thrown  out  of  the  ground  by  alternate  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing, and  in  this  way  have  their  roots  broken.  This  is 
most  likely  to  happen  where  the  ground  is  bare ;  if  covered 
with  leaves  or  grass,  or  shaded  in  other  wrays,  this  seldom 


140 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


happens.  The  best  preventive  is  to  mulch  the  surface 
soil  with  leaves  or  other  similar  material,  but  as  mice 
generally  like  to  live  in  such  places,  poison  should  be 
used.  It  should  be  placed  under  the  mulch  in  tin  cans 
laid  on  their  sides,  so  they  may  be  readily  found  in  spring 


FIG.   49. — Heaving  out  by  frost.      A,   Tree   in   natural   position. 
B,  Drawn  up  by  alternate  freezing  and  thawing. 


and  will  not  be  liable  to  poison  the  birds.  When  seed- 
lings are  thrown  out  of  the  ground  by  frost,  they  should 
be  pushed  back  and  have  the  earth  pressed  against  them 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  thawed  in  the  spring. 

Late  Spring  Frosts  are  common  in  the  low  lands  of 
many  sections.  They  injure  the  trees  by  killing  the  new 
spring  growth  after  it  has  started  several  inches.  A  large 
number  of  trees  are  seriously  injured  in  this  way,  and  are 


FOREST    PROTECTION.  141 

classed  as  frost  tender  trees,  and  those  that  are  not  liable 
to  this  injury  are  termed  frost  hardy  trees.  Among 
conifers,  the  Spruces  and  Balsams  are  much  injured  by 
late  spring  frosts,  while  our  Pines  and  the  Tamarack,  Red 
Cedar,  and  Arborvitse  are  seldom  if  ever  injured  in  this  way. 
Deciduous  trees  recover  from  such  injuries  more  quickly 
than  Evergreens.  Among  the  deciduous  trees  most  lia- 
ble to  injury  from  this  cause  are  the  Ash,  Mulberry,  Oak, 
Maple,  Basswood,  Black  Walnut,  Butternut,  and  Box- 
elder,  though  they  do  not  all  suffer  in  the  same  degree. 
Among  those  that  are  not  sensitive  to  late  frosts  are  the 
Elm,  Willow,  Poplar,  Birch,  Hackberry,  Wild  Black 
Cherry,  and  Mountain  Ash. 

On  account  of  this  liability  to  injury  from  late  frosts, 
it  is  customary  to  study  the  probability  of  damage  from 
this  cause  in  given  locations,  and  to  plant  accordingly. 
It  will  often  be  found  that  in  certain  low  spots  there  is 
greater  liability  to  late  frosts,  while  there  is  very  little 
injury  from  this  cause  on  the  higher  lands.  It  is 
customary  among  European  foresters  to  protect  young 
seedlings  of  some  kinds,  particularly  Beech,  from  late 
frosts  until  they  get  up  off  the  ground.  For  this  pur- 
pose Birches  twenty  or  more  feet  high  are  encouraged  at 
intervals  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  and  the  frost  tender 
plants,  such  as  Beech  and  Spruce,  are  set  out  between. 
The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  Birch,  which 
is  frost  hardy,  quite  successfully  protects  the  frost 
tender  trees  below  it.  After  the  frost  tender  trees  are 
well  off  the  ground,  as  ten  or  fifteen  feet  high,  there  is 
comparatively  little  danger  from  this  source  of  injury, 
and  the  Birch  is  removed. 

Sleet-Storms  occasionally  do  much  damage  by  break- 
ing the  limbs.  Little  can  be  done  to  relieve  the  trees, 
but  preventive  measures  may  be  taken.  If  no  large 
crotches  are  allowed  to  form  in  trees,  and  growth  is  kept 


142 


PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


as  near  as  possible  to  one  central  shaft,  or  the  longer 
branches  shortened  so  that  they  will  not  exert  too  great 
a  leverage,  the  losses  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Trees 
having  brittle  wood  or  weak  crotches,  as  the  Soft  Maple, 
are  much  more  liable  to  this  injury  than  those  with  tough 
wood,  as  the  Willows,  Oaks,  and  Elms,  and  need  more 
pruning  on  this  account.  Evergreens  are  likely  to  be 
broken  by  heavy  snows  that  freeze  on  the  leaves.  This 


FIG.  50. — Trees  heavily  loaded  with  ice  after  a  sleet-storm. 

may  be  prevented  on  lawn  and  shade  trees  by  shaking 
the  snow  off  from  them  before  it  freezes. 

Frost-Cracks  are  a  rather  infrequent  injury  caused 
by  the  cracking  of  trees  from  centre  to  outside,  due  to  un- 
even contraction  in  very  cold  weather.  They  are  generally 
accompanied  by  a  loud  report.  Such  cracks  are  often 
eight  or  ten  feet  long,  and  occasionally  longer.  They 
generally  close  up  again  when  the  wood  thaws  out,  and 
during  the  following  summer  grow  over  only  to  burst 
open  again  the  next  winter.  This  alternate  bursting 


FOREST    PROTECTION. 


143 


open  and  growing  over  may  continue  for  many  years , 
until  very  conspicuous  and  peculiar  wounds  are  formed. 
In  such  cracks,  insects  and  rot-producing  fungi  find  favor- 
able lodging-places,  and  as  a  result  trees  are  seriously 
injured,  and  are  liable  to  decay  in  the  trunk.  There  are 
no  practical  remedies  for  such  injuries. 

Wind.  Injuries  from  wind  are  common  where  thin- 
ning is  done  to  a  great  extent  at  one  time  about  shallow- 
rooted  trees,  such  as  Spruce  growing  on  moist  soil.  These 
injuries  can  be  avoided  only  by 
thinning  gradually.  In  many 
such  cases,  on  timber  lands,  grad- 
ual thinning  is  impracticable, 
and  it  is  then  best  to  cut  all  the 
merchantable  timber,  for  if  left, 
it  is  sure  to  be  blown  down. 

On  our  prairies,  where  the 
soil  is  light  and  easily  moved  by 
the  wind,  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
have  young  seedling  trees  seri- 
ously injured  by  the  blowing 
away  of  the  soil  around  the 
roots,  which  often  leaves  them 
uncovered  for  three  or  more 
inches.  This  injury  usually  takes 
place  in  the  spring,  and  may 
be  almost  entirely  prevented  by 
seeding  the  land  to  oats  about 
the  middle  of  July,  at  the  time 
of  the  last  cultivation.  Sown 

at  this  season  the  oats  form  a   _ 

,     ,,     ,  ,    .  .    FIG.  51.— Old   frost- cracks 

good    sod    that    serves    to    hold          in  Sugar  Maple. 

the    soil    in   place    until    spring, 

when  it  is  easily  broken  up    by   cultivation,   but    even 

then  the    roots  prevent  the  blowing  away  of   the   soil. 


144  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

Occasional  strips  of  grass  are  also  a  preventive  of  this 
injury,  or  mulching  may  be  resorted  to. 

Snow  Crust.  The  settling  of  a  snow  crust  that  has 
formed  on  the  top  of  deep  snowdrifts  may  cause  injury 
to  young  trees  by  stripping  off  their  branches  and  break- 
ing the  stems.  It  may  be  prevented  by  breaking  up  the 
crust  or  by  thinly  scattering  over  the  snow  some  sand, 
ashes,  or  other  material  that  will  absorb  the  sun's  heat 
and  cause  the  crust  to  melt  before  the  snow  underneath 
melts.  This  injury  seldom  occurs  except  under  drifts, 
and  a  little  good  judgment  in  selecting  the  location  and 
arranging  the  windbreak  so  as  to  prevent  drifts  may 
obviate  this  source  of  injury. 

Drought.  Injuries  from  drought  may  be  prevented  to  a 
great  extent  by  constant  cultivation,  but  where  this  can- 
not be  done  mulching  is  a  good  substitute.  Attention  to 
thinning  at  the  proper  time  so  as  not  to  get  the  soil  filled 
with  roots  will  also  help  to  prevent  injury  from  drought. 
Willow  windbreaks  can  be  grown  without  any  cultivation, 
after  being  once  well  established,  in  the  driest  portion  of 
Minnesota,  if  they  are  kept  mulched  with  straw  or  litter 
for  six  feet  on  each  side.  Mulching  also  prevents  injury 
from  severe  freezing  of  the  roots. 

Sun-scald.  Nearly  all  of  our  cultivated  trees  may  be 
injured  by  sun-scald.  This  occurs,  almost  without  ex- 
ception, on  the  southwest  side  of  unprotected  trees  of 
Hard  and  Soft  Maple,  Basswood,  Box-elder,  Black  Walnut, 
etc.  Oaks  and  all  other  trees  are  occasionally  affected. 
It  never  occurs  when  the  trees  are  sufficiently  close  together 
to  shade  their  trunks,  and  for  this  reason  the  growth  of 
shrubs  and  low  branching  trees  should  be  encouraged 
on  the  south  and  west  sides  of  groves  where  they  do  not 
crowd  the  principal  kinds.  Street  trees  liable  to  this 
injury  may  be  protected  by  burlap  sacking,  straw,  or 
other  similar  material.  WThen  injuries  from  sun-scalci 


FOREST   PROTECTION. 


145 


occur,  the  loose  bark  should  be  cut  off  down  to  the  live 
growth  and  the  wood  coated  with  paint,  to  prevent  its 
seasoning,  or  the  wound  wrapped  in  cloth.  Trees  in- 
clined to  the  northeast  are  most  liable  to  sun-scald,  be- 


FIG.  53. — Section  of  trunk  of  sun- 
scalded  Basswood,  showing  dead 
bark  and  amount  of  wood  de- 
cayed. The  top  and  roots  of 
the  tree  from  which  this  sec- 
tion was  cut  were  perfectly 
healthy  at  the  time  when  the 
trunk  *  broke  off  at  the  sun- 
scald. 


FIG.  52.— Trunk  of  Soft  Maple 
badly  sun-scalded. 

cause  the  rays  of  the  sun  strike  the  trunk  more  nearly 
perpendicular. 

Broken  Branches  and  Decay.  Large  wounds  are 
sometimes  formed  by  the  breaking  down  of  a  branch, 
or  by  decay,  which  may  have  started  in  a  wound  made 
by  pruning.  In  such  cases  the  broken  and  decayed  wood 
should  be  cleared  away,  and  the  exposed  surfaces  treated 


146  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

with  a  very  heavy  coat  of  white-lead  paint,  grafting-wax, 
or  other  material  that  will  keep  out  water  and  disease. 
If  the  wound  is  very  large,  or  forms  a  hole  in  which  water 
is  likely  to  stand,  it  should  be  cleaned  and  pointed  as  rec- 
ommended, and  then  covered  with  a  sheet  of  zinc,  care- 
fully tacked  on,  and  the  joints  closed  with  grafting-wax 
to  keep  out  water. 

Fungus  Diseases  are  quite  common  sources  of  injury 
to  trees  of  all  kinds,  including  those  of  our  forests.  They 
attack  the  foliage,  trunk,  and  roots.  Occasionally  very 
serious  losses  occur  in  timber  trees  from  those  that  cause 
the  trunks  to  rot.  They  are  generally  most  numerous 
in  sections  where  there  is  not  much  of  a  circulation  of 
air.  This  subject  is  too  large  for  a  detailed  account  of 
any  of  them  here,  and  only  one  is  referred  to,  which,  al- 
though not  very  common,  is  occasionally  quite  injurious. 
It  is  known  as  the  toadstool  root  fungus,  Agaricus  melleus. 
This  fungus  lives  upon  the  roots  of  Pines,  Spruces,  Firs, 
etc.,  and  occasionally  kills  them.  At  one  stage  of  its 
growth  it  lives  on  the  decaying  wood  of  Oaks  and  similar 


FOREST    FIRES. 

Forest  Fires  are  the  one  great  cause  of  injuries  to  forests 
in  the  United  States.  All  other  causes  of  injury  are  very 
slight  in  comparison  to  it,  and  could  this  one  cause  be 
removed  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  natural  renewal 
of  our  timber  lands  would  be  sufficient  to  maintain  the 
timber  industries  of  Minnesota  for  very  many  years  to 
come. 

Fires  in  this  country  have  destroyed  large  areas  of  pine 
log  timber  before  it  could  be  made  accessible  to  market. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  more  pine  timber  has  been 
destroyed  by  fire  than  the  lumbermen  have  ever  cut. 


FOREST    PROTECTION. 


147 


On  account  of  this  great  danger  to  pine  timber,  and 
on  account  of  high  taxes,  the  lumbermen  have  been  dis- 
couraged from  holding  their  pine  lands  for  a  second 
growth,  but  prefer  to  cut  every  tree  that  can  be  made 
into  salable  lumber  and  then  abandon  the  land.  But 
even  under  such  conditions,  it  occasionally  happens  that 
the  land  is  not  burned  over,  or  only  slightly  burned,  for 


.Fie.  54. — Agaricus  melleus,  a  fungus  that  is  occasionally  very  in- 
jurious to  trees  by  destroying  their  roots.  A,  A  fruiting  portion 
of  the  fungus. 

a  number  of  years,  when  it  will  .generally  produce  a  good 
second  cutting.  Some  land  in  Minnesota  that  was  first 
cut  in  the  early  days  of  the  logging  industry,  when  it  was 
customary  to  cut  nothing  but  that  which  would  make 
a  ten-inch  log,  have  been  logged  two  or  three  times  since, 
and  with  a  good  profit. 

In  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  fires  render  most  of  the 
cut-over  lands  entirely  non-productive,  and  since  the 
annual  increase  of  the  trees  that  should  grow  on  such 


148  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

land  is  at  least  185  feet  board  measure  per  acre,  it  is  plain 
that  the  loss  to  the  people  on  the  10,000,000  or  more  acres 
of  these  cut-over  lands  is  very  large. 

It  is  impossible  for  fires  to  run  over 'any  forest  land  with- 
out doing  great  injury.  The  amount  of  damage  done  by 
them  is  difficult  to  estimate,  and  varies  much  according 
to  the  time  of  year,  the  age  and  condition  of  the  trees, 
the  soil  and  the  severity  of  the  fire. 

Forest  fires  are  sometimes  grouped  into  the  three  fol- 
lowing classes:  1.  Underground  Fires,  that  do  not 
show  much  on  the  surface,  but  which  destroy  the  roots 
of  trees  and  greatly  injure  the  soil.  2.  Surface  Fires, 
which  burn  the  leaves  and  grass  in  the  woods,  and  do  much 
damage  by  destroying  the  forest  floor  and  killing  the 
young  seedlings.  3.  Crown  Fires,  which  run  in  the 
crowns  of  the  trees,  and  when  once  started  are  almost 
irresistible.  The  latter  is  one  of  the  worst  forms,  and 
is  generally  accompanied  by  surface,  and  often  by  under- 
ground, fires. 

The  Killing  of  Mature  Trees  by  any  of  these  three 
'  kinds  of  fires  entails  but  a  slight  loss  comparatively  to  the 
timber,  providing  it  is  accessible  to  market,  as  the  trees 
can  be  cut  the  following  winter.  But  fires  that  kill  the 
mature  growth  generally  do  great  damage  by  killing  the 
young  growth  and  destroying  the  forest  floor.  Timber 
that  is  allowed  to  stand  more  than  one  or  two  years  after 
being  killed  by  fire  generally  suffers  much  from  insects 
and  fungus  diseases.  This  is  most  evident  in  the  case 
of  White  Pine,  Birch,  Poplar,  and  similar  soft  woods, 
but  even  hard  woods  are  injured  by  insects  if  allowed 
to  stand  long  after  being  killed. 

The  Killing  of  Half-Grown  Trees  by  forest  fires  causes  a 
loss  that  amounts  not  only  to  the  value  of  the  timber 
trees,  but  to  the  value  of  the  seeding  and  shading 
trees  and  the  forest  floor.  The  value  of  the  trees  alone 


FOREST    PROTECTION.  149 

in  this  case  is  not  a  fair  standard  by  which  to  measure 
the  loss,  since  at  this  stage  of  their  growth  they  are  making 
their  most  rapid  increase,  and  their  value  should  be  com- 
puted as  the  amount  upon  which  the  increase  is  paying 
a  good  interest.  For  instance,  the  Division  of  Forestry 
of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  found  land  that 
was  well  stocked  with  young  White  Pine  (six  inches  in 
diameter  and  fifty  feet  high)  that  could  be  bought  for 
about  one  dollar  per  acre,  and  yet  the  annual  increase 
on  the  trees  would  pay  five  per  cent  on  a  valuation  of 
$100.00  for  the  next  twenty  years.  The  reason  why 
such  a  state  of  affairs  exists  is  that  there  is  such  great 
danger  from  fire  that  the  investment  fails  to  command 
the  money  of  careful  investors. 

The  Destruction  of  the  Forest  Floor  by  fire  greatly 
lessens  the  probability  of  an  immediate  renewal  of  valu- 
able tree-growth  upon  the  land,  and  therefore  is  one  of 
the  greatest  injuries  to  forests.  The  value  of  the  forest 
floor  can  hardly  be  estimated,  but  the  expense  that  would 
be  necessary  after  a  severe  fire  to  produce  conditions 
as  favorable  to  the  seeding  of  our  timber  lands  as  those 
found  in  unburned  forests  would  often  be  not  less  than 
twenty-five  dollars  per  acre. 

Light  Fires,  which  repeatedly  run  over  the  ground, 
and  which,  by  the  casual  observer  are  thought  to  be  of 
no  importance,  often  destroy  the  seeds  in  the  surface 
soil  and  the  young  tree  seedlings,  besides  injuring  the 
forest  floor,  and  unless  such  fires  are  prevented,  it  is  im- 
possible to  secure  a  good  growth  of  timber  on  any  land. 
The  fires  that  burn  over  the  land  shortly  after  it  has  been 
logged,  and  which  feed  on  the  tops  and  other  waste  parts 
of  the  trees,  generally  destroy  a  large  number  of  young 
seedling  trees,  perhaps  all  of  them,  so  that  in  order  to  se- 
cure a  new  growth  seeds  must  be  brought  from  a  distance. 
Owing  to  the  great  heat  developed  by  such  fires  in  dry 


150 


PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


weather,  they  are  unusually  destructive,  and  leave  very 
little  humus  in  the  top  soil.  For  some  reason,  land  that 
has  been  burned  over  in  this  way  is  a  long  time  in  recover- 
ing from  its  injuries.  Besides  the  injuries  already  cited, 
all  forest  fires  kill  or  drive  out  much  of  the  game  in  our 
forests. 


FIG.  55. — A  Fire  Fall.     Roots  burned  off  and  trees  blown 
down  in  great  confusion. 

Spring  Fires  are  very  injurious  to  trees,  and  especially 
tender  seedlings,  for  trees  in  the  spring  of  the  year  are 
full  of  sap,  and  can  endure  but  little  heat. 

Summer  and  Autumn  Fires  generally  run  deep  into 
the  ground,  and  if  the  soil  is  very  dry  and  of  a  peaty  nature 
burn  off  the  roots  of  the  trees.  The  result  of  this  is  that 
the  trees  are  blown  down  in  great  confusion,  and  form 
what  are  known  as  "fire  falls.''  Where  a  thick  growth 


FOREST    PROTECTION.  151 

falls,  it  forms  an  almost  impassable  barrier,  which  remains 
in  this  state  until  decay  and  repeated  fires,  extending 
over  a  long  series  of  years,  finally  destroy  the  trees,  and 
perhaps  get  the  land  into  condition  for  a  new  growth. 

Causes  of  Forest  Fires.  The  only  natural  causes  of 
forest  fires  are  friction  and  lightning,  both  of  which  occa- 
sionally start  fires  in  dead  trees,  but  as  such  fires  are  most 
likely  to  be  set  during  a  rain  they  seldom  do  much  damage. 
Practically  all  the  injurious  forest  fires  that  have  devas- 
tated the  forested  part  of  this  country  have  resulted  in- 
directly either  from  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  damage 
done  by  them  or  from  carelessness  and  ignorance.  In 
the  disastrous  Hinckley  fire  of  1894,  the  damage  was  done 
by  a  large  fire  formed  by  the  combination  of  several 
small  fires  that  were  allowed  to  smoulder  in  the  swamps 
near  Hinckley  for  a  week  or  more,  which,  when  fanned 
by  a  dry,  hot  wind,  attained  an  irresistible  energy.  If 
there  had  been  a  fire  law  that  could  have  been  properly 
enforced  at  that  time,  or  if  the  people  near  Hinckley  had 
been  aware  of  their  danger,  that  great  fire,  with  its  at- 
tendant great  loss  of  life  and  property,  need  not  have 
occurred. 

Fires  Often  Escape  from  Settlers  when  they  are  clearing 
land,  and  are  sometimes  started  by  them  to  make  pasture 
for  their  stock.  The  careless  use  of  fire  by  the  hunters, 
prospectors,  and  others  who  camp  in  the  forest  and  leave 
their  camp-fires  un extinguished  is  another  common  cause 
of  fires.  Railroads  set  many  fires,  and  should  be  required 
to  more  rigidly  conform  to  the  law  requiring  them  to 
use  spark-arresters  and  to  keep  their  right  of  way  free 
from  combustible  material. 

The  moral  effect  of  a  properly  enforced  forest-fire  law 
is  not  only  very  great  in  restraining  the  careless,  but 
especially  in  educating  law-abiding  citizens  in  the  idea 
that  there  is  value  in  young  seedlings  and  timber  trees. 


152  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

The  Prevention  of  Forest  Fires  will  be  most  certainly 
accomplished  by  educating  our  people  to  an  appreciation 
of  the  amount  of  damage  done  by  them.  In  some  sections 
it  is  impossible  to  enforce  the  law  against  setting  forest 
fires,  owing  to  the  belief  that  fires  are  a  good  thing  for 
their  sections  in  destroying  tree-growth  and  bringing 
the  land  into  condition  to  be  easily  taken  up  by  settlers. 
There  is  some  truth  in  this  claim,  but  since  the  fires  de- 
stroy all  increase  on  the  land  they  sweep  over,  a  large 
amount  of  it  is  thereby  rendered  entirely  unproductive 
long  before  settlers  are  ready  for  it,  while  in  the  mean- 
time it  might  be  producing  a  crop  of  valuable  timber. 
Then  again,  it  is  the  greatest  injustice  to  allow  one  per- 
son to  burn  the  property  of  another,  which  right  is  practi- 
cally claimed  by  those  who  advocate  the  unrestricted 
use  of  fire. 

With  a  Desire  in  the  Minds  of  People  to  keep  out  forest 
fires,  there  are  many  precautions  that  could  be  taken 
that  would  lessen  the  chances  of  their  starting,  and  when 
started  would  aid  in  controlling  them.  The  first  thing  is 
a  good  fire  law,  such  as  now  stands  in  Minnesota,  which 
recognizes  the  fact  that  the  State  and  county  should 
protect  forest  property  from  fire  for  the  same  reason  that 
a  town  or  city  protects  the  property  of  its  citizens  from 
fire.  This  law  puts  two-thirds  the  expense  of  enforcing 
it  on  the  State  and  the  other  one-third  on  the  county. 
The  chief  reasons  why  a  part  of  this  burden  should  be 
borne  by  the  State  and  not  by  the  counties  alone  are  that 
fires  spread  from  one  county  to  another,  and  the  State 
must  be  organized  to  extinguish  such  fires  when  they 
have  once  started,  since  it  is  the  only  competent  author- 
ity that  can  do  this.  Then  again,  the  Stats  of  Minnesota 
owns,  or  will  own,  when  surveys  have  been  completed, 
about  3,000,000  acres  of  land  scattered  through  the  for- 
ested area,  besides  possibly  nearly  as  great  an  area  that 


[To  face  page  153.] 


FIG.  5G. — Firebreak  on  a  great  sand-dune  in  France,  which  lias  been 
successfully  covered  with  Pine. 


FOREST   PROTECTION.  153 

has  been  bid  in  by  the  State  for  delinquent  taxes.  A 
large  part  of  the  land  the  State  owns  has  a  valuable  growth 
of  trees  on  it,  much  of  which  is  liable  to  injury  or  destruc- 
tion by  fire  at  any  time,  and  the  State  can  well  afford  to 
provide  protection  for  it. 

Firebreaks,  in  the  shape  of  clean  earth  roads,  ploughed 
strips,  etc.,  are  effective  against  ordinary  forest  fires. 
Very  often  by  clearing  up  and  widening  the  course  of 
a  brook,  a  very  efficient  firebreak  may  be  made  which 
will  supplement  other  firebreaks.  It  is  stated  on  good 
authority  that  fairly  satisfactory  and  very  cheap  fire- 
breaks may  be  made  in  rough  stump  land  by  fencing 
off  a  strip  about  three  rods  wide  and  pasturing  it  with 
sheep,  which  will  kill  out  all  the  brush  in  the  course  of  a 
year  or  two.  The  sheep  do  this  most  effectually  if  the 
land  is  rather  overstocked,  and  they  receive  a  little  grain 
to  make  up  for  their  lack  of  pasturage.  Fig.  56  shows 
a  firebreak  or  lane  on  Le  Grande  Dune  in  France. 

The  Burning  of  Trash  left  on  the  ground  at  the  time 
of  logging  is  recommended  by  some  of  our  best  woodmen 
as  a  means  of  doing  away  with  one  of  the  sources  of  our 
worst  forest  fires.  This  trash  can  be  burned  early  in 
the  spring,  or  at  other  times  when  the  ground  is  wet  and 
fire  is  not  likely  to  get  beyond  control.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  well  known  that  there  are  many  seedlings  on 
such  land  that  would  be  seriously  injured  or  destroyed 
by  such  treatment.  It  is  also  known  that  under  the  trash 
left  after  logging  are  generally  found  about  the  best  con- 
ditions for  pine  seeds  to  start  and  for  the  seedlings  to  grow, 
so  that  some  of  our  best  authorities  condemn  the  prac- 
tice. It  would  seem,  however,  that  on  account  of  the  great 
liability  of  fires  starting  in  such  trash,  prudence  would 
generally  advocate  the  burning  of  it  while  it  could  be 
controlled,  but  this  should  be  done  so  as  to  cause  as  little 
injury  as  possible  to  new  growth,  and  especial  care  should 


154  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

be  taken  to  save  seeding  trees.  The  cost  of  such  work 
has  been  urged  against  it,  but  this  has  often  been  over- 
estimated, and  it  seems  evident  that  it  is  entirely  prac- 
ticable. 

The  Methods  of  Fighting  Surface  Fires  are  various, 
and  their  use  depends  on  the  conditions  under  which 
the  work  must  be  done.  Where  possible,  the  ploughing 
of  a  firebreak  a  rod  or  more  wide  is  most  satisfactory, 
but  this  is  seldom  practicable  within  our  wooded  areas. 
Back  Firing  is  generally  the  most  successful  method  of 
making  a  firebreak.  When  this  is  to  be  practised,  a  con- 
venient place  to  fight  fire  should  be  chosen,  at  some  dis- 
tance ahead  of  the  main  fire,  where  the  back  fire 
should  be  started,  after  every  precaution  has  been  taken 
to  prevent  its  getting  beyond  control.  Where  a  supply 
of  water  can  be  obtained,  surface  fires  can  be  most  easily 
put  out  by  applying  it  through  a  common  sprinkling- 
pot  with  a  good  rose  sprinkler  on  it.  This  is  especially 
effective  where  fire  is  running  through  grass,  and  those 
who  have  never  tried  it  will  generally  be  surprised  at 
the  effectiveness  of  this  method.  Where  the  fire  is  burn- 
ing in  several  inches  of  dry  leaves,  a  small  strip  should 
be  cleaned  of  them  before  applying  the  water.  Gunny 
sacks  or  similar  material  wet  in  water  make  very  effective 
weapons  with  which  to  fight  fire.  Where  the  soil  is  sandy, 
sand  is  often  the  best  material  obtainable  for  putting 
out  fires. 

Underground  Fires,  such  as  occur  in  bogs  and  other 
soils  containing  a  large  amount  of  organic  matter,  when 
once  started,  are  often  very  hard  to  subdue,  owing  to  their 
great  depth,  and,  where  not  looked  after,  sometimes  burn 
for  a  year  or  more  unless  we  have  very  heavy  rains.  They 
often  cause  great  injury  by  burning  out  all  organic  mat- 
ter from  the  soil  and  leaving  it  in  poor  shape  for  crops, 
though  a  rather  severe  but  not  excessive  firing  of  bogs 


FOREST    PROTECTION.  155 

may  do  much  to  clear  the  land  of  roots  and  put  it  in  shape 
for  a  good  hay  meadow.  Then,  too,  they  often  so  reduce 
the  level  of  the  land  by  burning  out  the  organic  matter 
as  to  make  it  wet  and  of  no  value  for  agricultural  crops. 
If  such  fires  are  attacked  soon  after  they  secure  a  foot- 
hold in  the  soil  they  are  seldom  very  difficult  to  put  out. 
Where  not  deep  in  the  ground  or  of  very  great  extent 
the  burning  peat  may  be  dug  out  and  watered,  but  this 
is  often  impracticable  on  account  of  the  heat.  In  this 
latter  case  a  ditch  should  be  dug  around  the  fire  as  close 
to  it  as  practicable  and  of  sufficient  depth  to  reach  standing 
water  or  the  subsoil.  The  fire  should  then  be  carefully 
watched  to  see  that  it  does  not  get  beyond  the  ditch.  It 
is  seldom  that  sufficient  water  can  be  put  on  a  large  bog 
fire  to  put  it  out,  on  account  of  the  great  amount  of  water 
that  dry  peat  will  absorb  and  the  protective  covering 
of  ashes  and  peat  usually  found  over  a  bog  fire. 

NOTABLE    FOREST   FIRES. 

Among  the  worst  forest  fires  which  have  occurred  on 
this  continent  are  the  following: 

Miramichi  Fire  of  1825.  This  occurred  near  Newcastle, 
on  the  Miramichi  River,  in  New  Brunswick.  In  nine 
hours  it  had  destroyed  a  belt  of  forest  eighty  miles  long 
and  twenty-five  miles  wide,  and  almost  every  living  thing 
was  killed  on  that  amount  of  territory ;  even  the  fish  were 
destroyed  in  the  smaller  lakes  and  streams.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  loss  from  this  fire,  not  including  the  value 
of  the  timber  burned,  was  $300,000.  One  hundred  and 
sixty  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  nearly  1,000  head  of 
stock  were  killed. 

The  Peshtigo  Fire  occurred  in  October,  1871.  This 
burned  an  area  of  over  2.000  square  miles  in  Wisconsin. 
Between  1,100  and  1,500  persons  lost  their  lives,  and 


156  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

property  to  the  amount  of  many  millions  of  dollars  was 
destroyed. 

Very  serious  fires  have  occurred  in  Michigan  from  time 
to  time,  in  one  of  which,  in  about  1871,  a  strip  of  territory 
forty  miles  wide  and  180  miles  long,  extending  across 
the  central  part  of  the  State  from  Lake  Michigan  to  Lake 
Huron,  was  devastated.  More  than  ten  million  dollars' 
worth  of  timber  was  burned,  and  several  hundred  persons 
perished. 

The  Hinckley  Fire  occurred  Sept.  1,  1894,  and  was 
the  most  destructive  fire  of  recent  years.  Hinckley, 
Minnesota,  and  several  other  towns  were  destroyed,  about 
500  lives  were  lost,  and  more  than  2,000  persons  were 
left  destitute.  It  is  estimated  that  the  loss  in  pToperty 
amounted  to  about  $25,000,000.  The  loss  of  life  from 
this  fire  would  have  been  much  more  than  stated  had  it 
not  been  for  the  fact  that  the  railroad  companies  ran 
special  trains  to  carry  the  settlers  away  from  the  flames. 
This  fire  was  wholly  unnecessary,  and  could  easily  have 
been  put  out  in  its  earlier  stages.  For  two  weeks  previous 
to  the  breaking  out  of  this  fire  into  an  uncontrollable 
mass  of  flame,  small  fires  had  been  raging  in  swamps  about 
Hinckley,  and  filled  the  town  with  dense  smoke,  and  it 
was  only  when  these  became  united  under  the  direction 
of  a  hot  south  wind  that  it  passed  beyond  control.  Had 
the  present  forest-fire  law  of  Minnesota  been  in  force  at 
that  time  this  fire  would  undoubtedly  have  been  pre- 
vented. 

Sand-Dunes.  In  places  in  various  parts  of  this  country, 
notably  along  portions  of  the  seashore  and  along  the  shores 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  there  are  quite  considerable  sand- 
dunes.  By  this  is  meant  the  drifting  sands  which  are 
easily  blown  about  after  the  vegetation,  which  has  held 
them  in  place,  has  been  broken.  Along  the  shore  of 
New  Jersey,  at  Seven  Mile  Beach,  there  is  a  dune  which 


FOREST    PROTECTIOX. 


157 


is  travelling  inward  at  the  rate  of  perhaps  fifteen  feet 
per  year,  and  is  destroying  quite  a  growth  of  forest  trees. 
This  dune  is  thirty  or  forty  feet  high — as  high  as  the 
trees — and  as  the  prevailing  strong  winds  are  from  the 
east,  its  tendency  is  always  inland. 

In  some  parts  of  Europe,  notably  in  Gascony,  France, 
dunes  have  destroyed  an  immense  amount  of  territory 
in  former  ages.  Whole  villages  have  at  times  been  grad- 
ually wiped  out  by  the  encroaching  dunes.  The  sand  is 
so  fine  and  so  easily  moved  by  the  wind  that  there  is  very 
little  chance  for  any  vegetation  to  grow  on  it,  and  it  is 


FIG.  57. — Sand-dune  near  Seven  Mile  Beach,  New  Jersey. 

only  in  recent  times  that  methods  have  been  successfully 
adopted  to  hold  it  in  place. 

There  are  Notable  Sand-Dunes  at  Provincetown  on 
Cape  Cod,  Mass.,  on  which  the  State  and  National  govern- 
ments have  expended  much  money  in  efforts  to  hold  them 
in  place.  These  dunes  are  in  three  ridges  with  deep  valleys 
between  in  which  the  humus  of  the  ground  cover  of  for- 


158  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

mer  forests  may  be  seen  and  even  old  stumps  as  much 
as  twelve  feet  high  are  occasionally  uncovered  by  the 
movement  of  the  sands,  showing  that  formerly  all  this 
section  was  covered  by  forests. 

After  extensive  trials  with  Maritime  Pine,  Scotch 
Broom  (Genista),  White  Poplar,  and  Willows,  all  of 
which  have  failed  to  give  satisfaction,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  native  Bay  berry  (Myrica  cerijera)  is  the  most 
satisfactory  of  anything  tried  in  the  severest  situations 
on  these  dunes.  The  Beach  Grass  is  excellent  for  hold- 
ing the  sand  for  a  few  years,  but  dies  out,  and  the  most 
promising  results  have  been  obtained  by  planting  Bay- 
berry  in  with  it.  The  native  Pitch  Pine  has  also  proven 
desirable  as  a  soil  cover  after  the  movement  of  the  sand 
has  been  somewhat  checked.  The  native  trailing  plant, 
Hudsonia,  is  also  a  most  excellent  sand-binder  and  comes 
in  quickly  when  the  sand  is  stable.  In  the  case  of  these 
special  sands,  if  the  movement  on  the  windward  side  is 
checked  the  leeward  side  soon  becomes  covered  with  vege- 
tation. 

The  Most  Improved  Way  of  Checking  Sand-Dtmes 
that  are  Easily  Moved  by  Wind  is  to  first  make  a  wind- 
break of  boards,  poles,  or  brush,  which  may  be  pulled 
up  as  the  sand  drifts  up  onto  them.  These  are  used 
temporarily  to  afford  an  opportunity  of  getting  vegetable 
growth  started.  As  a  rule,  the  vegetable  growth  which 
Has  been  most  successfully  used  for  fixing  sand-dunes 
is  that  of  plants  that  grow  naturally  in  such  places.  Such 
species  are  generally  those  that  grow  out  long  creeping 
stems  at  or  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
also  such  as  are  capable  of  healthy  growth  even  when 
half  buried  by  encroaching  sand.  We  have  a  number 
of  native  species  that  are  adapted  to  this  purpose  on 
inland  dunes,  among  which  are  the  Sand  Reed,  the  Sand 
Cherry,  several  varieties  of  Willows,  and  Quack  Grass. 


FOREST    PROTECTION.  159 

Where  these  once  gain  a  foothold  upon  a  sand-dune,  they 
hold  it  better  than  would  be  possible  by  artificial  means. 
In  protecting  such  land  it  is  generally  best  to  dig  up 
clumps  of  these  grasses,  or  use  long  Willow  cuttings,  and 
set  them  in  place  in  a  wet  time. 

In  some  sections  along  the  Great  Lakes  the  sand  is 
now  held  in  place  by  the  natural  covering  of  weeds  and 
shrubs,  but  should  this  be  removed  and  the  land  broken 
up,  there  would  be  much  trouble  in  getting  it  again  fixed 
in  place.  Such  is  the  case  along  the  southern  shore  of 
Lake  Michigan. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
RATE  OF  INCREASE  IN  TIMBER. 

The  Rate  of  Increase  on  Timber  Trees  varies  according 
to  the  kind  and  age  of  the  trees  and  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  growing.  Most  of  the  Pine  trees  cut  for 
log  timber  in  the  North  have  been  upwards  of  100  years 
old,  and  some  of  the  White  and  Norway  Pine  that  has 
been  cut  over  300  years  old.  Perhaps  one  of  the  largest 
White  Pine  trees  ever  cut  in  this  country  was  scaled  by 
H.  B.  Ayres.  The  tree  was  253  years  old,  measured 
forty-eight  inches  in  diameter  on  the  stump,  and  yielded 
4,050  feet  board  measure  of  log  timber.  The  most  rapidly 
grown  trees  recorded  in  Minnesota  were:  Norway  Pine, 
100  years  old,  thirty  inches  on  the  stump,  yielding  1,050 
feet  board  measure;  White  Pine,  106  years  old,  twenty- 
seven  inches  on  the  stump,  yielding  1,050  feet  board 
measure,  and  White  Pine,  108  years  old,  thirty-two  inches 
on  the  stump,  yielding  1,450  board  measure.  The  largest 
recorded  acre  yield  of  White  Pine  in  Minnesota  was  near 
Carlton.  The  full  yield  of  this  acre  was  111,050  feet 
board  measure,  and  after  deducting  for  rot  and  crooks 
94,264  feet  of  sound  timber  remained.  The  average 
yield  of  White  Pine  is  much  below  this  and  large  areas 
have  been  cut  that  did  not  yield  over  5,000  feet  board 
measure  per  acre. 

Marketable  White  and  Norway  Pine  may  be  grown  in 
about  thirty  years  under  the  best  conditions,  and  at  this 
age  will  probably  be  about  eight  inches  in  diameter  and 


RATE  OF  INCREASE  IN  TIMBER.          161 

forty  feet  high.  But  such  trees  are  then  growing  very  fast, 
and  as  the  approximate  increase  in  volume  of  the  tree 
is  as  the  square  of  the  proportionate  increase  in  diameter 
and  the  waste  in  working  greatly  decreases  with  the  size 
of  the  trees,  the  cutting  of  them  at  such  an  early  age 
would  be  at  a  loss  of  future  profits.  Such  trees  have  very 
little,  if  any,  heart  wood,  and  yet  this  kind  of  timber 
is  being  grown  and  marketed  in  many  of  the  Eastern 
States.  In  fact,  there  is  very  little  heart  to  any  of  the 
pine  now  cut  in  the  New  England  States,  as  it  is  practi- 
cally all  young  second  growth,  and  is  generally  marketed 
about  as  soon  as  it  attains  sufficient  size  to  be  salable, 
without  regard  to  the  fact  that  it  is  then  making  its  most 
rapid  growth. 

From  careful  observation,  the  Experiment  Station 
of  the  University  of  Minnesota  estimates  that  on  land 
adapted  to  the  White  Pine,  with  a  thick  growth  of  this 
kind  of  trees  eight  inches  in  diameter,  the  annual  increase 
should  be  about  fifty  cubic  feet,  or  500  feet  board  measure, 
per  acre.  In  some  cases  this  rate  of  increase  has  been 
more  than  doubled,  but  under  ordinary  good  conditions 
not  over  one-third  as  much  increase  need  be  expected. 

The  Thickness  of  the  Annual  Rings  on  trees  varies 
with  the  conditions  under  which  the  trees  make  their 
growth,  and  is  therefore  a  good  index  to  these  conditions. 
Trees  that  are  crowded  so  that  they  make  a  very  rapid 
upward  growth  form  very  thin  rings,  and  when  this  up- 
ward growth  ceases  owing  to  the  removal  or  suppression 
of  surrounding  trees  much  thicker  rings  are  formed.  Trees 
that  are  grown  in  the  open,  produce  throughout  their 
lives  thick  annual  rings,  which  vary  in  thickness  accord- 
ing to  varying  climatic  conditions.  Those  of  the  White 
Pine  vary  in  thickness  from  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  or 
less  in  trees  that  are  severely  crowded  to  one-third  of 
an  inch  in  open-grown,  trees  in  good  soil.  Willows  some- 


162 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


times  have  annual  rings  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide, 
showing  the  diameter  growth  to  have  been  one  and  a 
half  inches  per  year. 

The  Life  History  of  a  Mature  Tree  in  virgin  forest  may 
often  be  determined  by  a  study  of  the  annual  rings,  in 
connection  with  the  environment  of  the  tree.  The  Divi- 
sion of  Forestry  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station 


FIG.  58. — Cross-section  of  White  Pine  crowded  and  then  open  grown, 

has  made  several  studies  of  this  kind,  among  which  are 
the   following: 

Fig.  58  shows  a  section  of  a  White  Pine  which  made 
its  growth  under  varying  conditions.  This  tree  started 
into  growth  under  Birch  and  Aspen,  and  when  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  years  old  was  nearly  suppressed 
by  them.  Overcoming  them  when  thirty  years  old  it 


RATE    OF   INCREASE    IN   TIMBER.  163 

pushed  rapidly  upward  until  about  its  fiftieth  year.  It 
was  then  set  free  by  fire,  which  checked  its  upward  growth 
for  about  twenty-five  years,  when,  owing  to  the  crowding 
of  surrounding  trees,  it  began  to  again  increase  rapidly 
in  height.  When  eighty-four  years  old  fire  killed  the 
surrounding  trees  and  set  this  one  entirely  free,  in  which 
condition  it  remained  until  it  was  cut  eighteen  years 
later.  When  cut  it  measured  fifty-five  feet  high,  thirteen 
inches  through  at  the  base,  and  contained  29.95  cubic 
feet  of  timber.  During  the  last  ten  years  it  had  made 
an  average  annual  increase  of  1.5  cubic  feet. 

This  study  brought  out  the  following  facts:  1.  While 
rapid  upward  growth  is  being  made  the  lateral  accretions 
are  slight.  2.  Large  accretions  accompany  full  leafage. 
3.  After  the  surrounding  growth  is  killed,  the  tree  be- 
gins to  strengthen  the  portion  which  receives  the  greatest 
strain  by  wind,  that  is,  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk.  4.  ]n 
approaching  the  top  of  the  tree  the  accretions  are  found 
to  diminish  as  each  live  branch  is  passed. 

Fig.  59  shows  a  section  of  a  White  Pine  that  was  entirely 
open  grown.  This  tree  was  cut  when  fifty-six  years  old, 
and  measured  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  on  the  stump, 
eight  inches  at  twenty-five  feet  above  the  stump,  and 
forty-eight  feet  in  height.  The  volume  of  the  stem  when 
cut  was  28.85  cubic  feet;  the  accretion  during  the  last 
ten  years  was  12.52  feet,  which  is  equivalent  to  mean 
annual  increment  of  1.25  feet. 

As  the  live  branches  of  this  tree  occupied  the  whole 
trunk,  the  timber  was  very  knotty.  A  proper  crowding 
would  have  kept  it  from  forming  large  branches  on  the 
lower  trunk,  stimulated  its  upward  growth,  and  pre- 
vented so  large  an  increment  during  the  early  life  of  the 
tree.  But  if,  as  with  the  former  tree,  it  had  been  first 
crowded  and  then  set  free,  the  best  timber  in  the  least 
time  would  have  been  secured. 


164 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


The  Profit  from  an  Investment  in  Land  that  is  stocked 
with  only  very  small  coniferous  seedlings  is  altogether 
too  small  and  too  remote  to  prove  an  attraction  to  in- 
vestors at  present,  even  were  the  danger  from  fire  entirely 
eliminated.  But  there  is  considerable  land  that  is  now 
stocked  with  a  good  growth  of  young  pine  of  fair 
size  that  could  be  bought  and  managed  at  a  good  profit 


FIG.  59. — Cross-section  of  White  Pine  open  grown. 

if  the  danger  from  fire  could  be  greatly  reduced.  This 
land  in  many  cases  would  not  have  to  be  held  more  than 
ten  or  fifteen  years  to  secure  a  good  profit  on  the  invest- 
ment, after  which  the  profit  might  be  made  nearly  con- 
tinuous. The  rapid-growing  deciduous  trees,  such  as 
the  Poplar,  Willow,  White  and  Yellow  Birch,  Soft  Maple, 
Chestnut,  Ash,  Red  and  White  Elm,  Hackberry,  Catalpa, 
Basswood,  Locust,  Black  Walnut,  and  Tamarack,  may 
sometimes  be  planted  and  grown  at  a  profit  on  waste 


RATE  OF  INCREASE  IX  TIMBER.          165 

land  that  is  adapted  to  them,  and  should  there  be  a  stock 
of  young  trees  of  these  kinds  already  on  the  land  it  can 
perhaps  be  soon  made  to  yield  a  revenue  in  the  shape 
of  posts  and  fuel,  and  later  of  timber.  Even  the  slower- 
growing  deciduous  trees,  such  as  the  Red,  White,  and 
Bur  Oak,  Hard  Maple,  and  Rock  Elm,  increase  very  rapidly 
in  good  soil,  and  could  often  be  made  to  yield  a  good 
profit  if  properly  managed.  However,  most  of  the  hard- 
wood lands  of  this  section  are  of  such  good  quality  that 
they  seem  destined  to  be  generally  cleared  for  agriculture 
instead  of  being  kept  for  timber. 

Willow  for  Fuel.  From  a  number  of  careful  estimates 
it  seems  quite  probable  that  good  soil  planted  in  White 
Willow  will  produce  at  the  rate  of  from  four  to  six  cords 
of  fire-wood  per  acre  per  year.  If,  then,  ten  acres  were 
taken  for  this  purpose,  and  one  acre  cut  over  clean  each 
year,  such  amount  of  land  would  yield  about  fifty  cords  of 
fuel  per  annum,  worth  probably  from  two  dollars  to  three 
dollars  per  cord  in  our  prairie  sections. 

In  starting  such  a  wood-lot  it  would  be  desirable  to  set 
the  cuttings  two  feet  apart  in  rows  eight  feet  apart,  since 
at  this  distance,  if  cultivated,  they  will  soon  cover  the 
land,  and  until  the  land  is  fully  shaded  cultivation  seems 
to  be  necessary  in  order  to  keep  down  the  weeds  and  to 
protect  from  drought.  After  the  land  is  well  shaded  no 
further  cultivation  will  be  necessary. 

At  the  end  of  five  or  six  years  some  thinning  should 
be  done  on  all  the  land,  and  in  this  thinning  probably  at 
least  half  the  trees  should  be  removed.  The  remainder 
will  soon  fill  up  the  vacancies,  and  in  the  course  of  three 
or  four  years  more  it  should  be  again  thinned  out,  and 
this  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  they  crowd  one  an- 
other until  the  trees  on  the  land  remain  about  twelve  feet 
apart  each  way,  after  which  the  land  should  be  treated 
as  coppice,  and  since  this  tree  renews  itself  very  quickly 


166  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

and  vigorously  from  sprouts,  and  continues  to  do  so  for 
a  long  period  of  years,  it  is  probable  that  such  a  plantation 
will  last  indefinitely. 

Willow  wood  makes  good  summer  fuel,  and  as  a  fence- 
post,  when  the  bark  is  removed  and  the  wood  well  cured, 
it  is  quite  satisfactory,  and  will  last  in  the  soil  about  seven 
years.  It  is  also  good  for  poles  when  peeled  and  dried. 

The  Common  Cottonwood  on  very  rich  soil  will  prob- 
ably yield  from  five  to  seven  cords  of  firewood  per  acre 
per  year. 

DIAMETER    GROWTH    OF   SOME    MINNESOTA   TREES. 

Cottonwood 1  inch  in  1.4  years 

Norway  Spruce 1  inch  in  2. 5  years 

Silver  Maple 1  inch  in  2.7  years 

White  Willow 1  inch  in  2.8  years 

Basswood 1  inch  in  4.5  years 

Sugar  Maple 1  inch  in  6.6  years 

White   Elm 1  inch  in  6.8  years 

Bur  Oak 1  inch  in  8.5  years 

The  height  growth  of  Silver  Maple  and  White  Willow 
is  about  two  feet  per  year,  Norway  Spruce  one  foot  per 
year.  Bur  Oak  averaging  thirty  feet  in  height  makes 
an  average  growth  of  about  .55  foot  per  year,  while  the 
rate  of  height  growth  of  the  first  twenty  feet  of  market- 
able cordwood  is  about  one  foot  in  1.5  ycars.  The  height 
growth  of  Cottonwood  varies  from  two  to  eight  feet  per 
year.  A  fifteen-year-old  Cottonwood  will  often  grow 
in  height  three  feet  per  year.  Black  Spruce  has  shown 
a  diameter  growth  of  one  inch  in  14.7  years,  and  a  height 
growth  of  one  foot  in  2.3  years. 


CHAPTER   X. 

FOREST  MENSURATION. 
MEASUREMENT    OF   SINGLE   TREES. 

Trees  which  are  to  be  Cut  May  be  Considered  in  Two 
Classes,  in  the  first  of  which  comes  all  those  which  contain 
timber  material,  and  in  the  second  those  which  are  too 
small  to  be  of  value  for  timber.  The  material  of  the 
first  class  is  in  the  main  part  available  for  timber,  and  in 
part  for  firewood,  while  the  stump,  smaller  limbs,  and 
leaves  are  waste;  the  material  of  the  second  class  may 
be  used  in  part  for  firewood,  fence-posts,  etc.  For  tim- 
ber purposes,  the  cubic  contents  of  the  wood  only  is  con- 
sidered, while  for  firewood  the  bark  is  included  in  the 
calculation,  so  that  we  may  measure  part  of  the  tree  with- 
out bark  and  part  with  bark  on.  For  timber,  usually 
only  the  main  portion  of  the  trunk  is  considered,  espe- 
cially in  coniferous  woods,  but  for  firewood  all  limbs  that 
will  make  a  stick  of  cord  wood  must  be  included.  In 
this  discussion  we  will  consider  only  the  trunks  of  trees, 
as  the  volume  of  the  limbs  must  be  determined  separately, 
but  in  the  same  way. 

The  Volume  of  a  Standing  Tree  can  be  gotten  at  only 
roughly,  as  there  is  no  geometric  figure  which  exactly 
represents  the  shape  of  the  trunk,  the  latter  varying  much 
under  different  conditions  of  growth.  The  volume  of 
a  paraboloid,  the  geometric  figure  which  approaches 
nearest  to  the  form  of  a  tree,  is  equal  to  the  product  of 
the  basal  cross-sectional  area  by  one-half  the  height.  The 

167 


168 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


basal  area  of  a  tree  is  taken  at  breast-height,  to  avoid 
the  excessive  swelling  near  the  ground.  Breast-height 
is  usually  considered  as  four  feet  six  inches  above  the 
ground,  at  which  point  the  diameter  is  measured  by  a 
pair  of  calipers  in  inches,  and  the  area  in  square  feet  of 
the  corresponding  circle  is  found  in  a  prepared  table  of 
such  areas.  The  height  of  the  tree  may  be  determined 
by  triangulation,  in  which  various  instruments  are  used, 
as  the  transit,  the  altimeter,  or  a  mirror  hypsometer.  A 


6~ — ~ 


FIG.  60. — Diagram  showing  method  of  measuring  the  height  of  a 
tree  by  a  simple  geometrical  method. 

simple  geometrical  method  is  illustrated  in  the  figure. 
A  measuring-rod  is  set  up  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
the  tree  A  B,  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  at  S,  and  the  lines 
of  sight  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  tree  intersect  the 
rod  at  a  and  6.  Then.,  by  measuring  the  distances  from 
the  observer  to  the  rod  and  to  the  tree  the  height  is  given 

by  the  formula  //  =  — - — -. 

Now,  considering  the  tree  as  a  paraboloid,  its  basal 
area  times  one-half  the  height  will  give  approximately 


FOREST  MENSURATION.  169 

the  volume.  For  example:  A  White  Pine  has  a  diameter 
at  breast-height  of  18.7  inches,  and  the  height  of  the 
tree  is  eighty-four  feet;  what  is  the  volume?  By  refer- 
ence to  the  table  of  areas  of  circles  the  area  correspond- 
ing to  a  diameter  of  18.7  inches  is  found  to  be  1.9072  square 
feet.  Multiplying  this  by  one-half  the  height,  the  ap- 
proximate volume  of  the  tree  is  found — -1.9072X42  = 
80.1024  cubic  feet. 

The  Volume  of  a  Standing  Tree  may  be  Obtained  by 
Employing  a  Form  Factor  which  has  been  previously 
determined  for  that  particular  species  by  the  felling  and 
accurate  measurement  of  a  great  many  sample  trees 
of  approximately  the  same  dimensions  and  grown  under 
the  same  conditions.  The  form  factor  is  expressed  as 
a  decimal,  and  is  the  ratio  of  the  mean  volume  of  the 


FIG.  61. — Diagram  illustrating  method  of  determining  the 
volume  of  a  felled  tree. 

sample  trees  to  the  volume  of  a  cylinder  with  the  same 
diameter  as  the  diameter  of  the  mean  sample  tree  at  breast- 
height,  and  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  height  of  the  tree. 
For  example:  A  Tamarack  measures  6.9  inches  in  diam- 
eter, breast-high,  and  the  height  of  the  tree  is  fifty-one 
feet.  Its  volume  by  accurate  measurement  of  the  felled 
tree  is  7.21  cubic  feet,  and  the  volume  of  a  cylinder  with 
a  diameter  of  6.9  inches  and  a  length  of  fifty-one  feet 
is  13.24  cubic  feet.  The  form  factor  or  factor  of  shape  is 
therefore  7.21  -j- 13.24  =  .54,  and  if  this  Tamarack  represents 
the  mean  of  a  large  number  of  trees  of  approximately  the 
same  dimensions,  the  factor  may  be  applied  to  all  of  them, 
or  to  all  trees  of  the  same  size  and  grown  under  the  same 


170  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

conditions.  In  the  same  way  factors  are  determined 
for  all  sizes  and  tabulated  for  future  use.  In  application, 
the  volume  of  a  tree  6.9  inches  in  diameter,  breast-high, 
and  fifty-one  feet  high,  would  be  found  thus:  Volume 
of  cylinder  X  form  factor  equals  volume  of  tree,  or 
13.24  X  .54  X  7.21.  This  method  gives  a  much  closer 
approximation  than  could  be  obtained  by  using  a  geomet- 
ric figure  supposed  to  represent  the  shape  of  the  tree. 

The  Volume  of  a  Felled  Tree  may  be  determined  more 
accurately.  It  is  considered  in  sections,  or  log  lengths, 
and  the  volume  of  each  section  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  middle  cross-sectional  area  by  the  length.  The 
degree  of  accuracy  of  this  method  depends  on  the  length 
of  the  sections:  the  shorter  they  are  the  more  accurate  the 
result.  The  last  section  at  the  top,  when  small,  may  be 
treated  as  a  cone  whose  volume  is  equal  to  the  basal  area 
times  one-third  its  length;  or  when  large  and  tapering 
off  suddenly  it  may  be  considered  as  a  paraboloid  whose 
volume  is  equal  to  the  basal  area  times  one-half  its  length. 
The  sum  of  the  volumes  of  all  the  sections  will  be  the  vol- 
ume of  the  tree- trunk. 

For  example:  A  tree  is  felled  at  two  feet  above  ground 
and  calipered  at  the  stump  and  every  four  feet  along  the 
trunk  down  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  also  at  two 
feet  above  the  last  measurement.  The  remaining  distance 
to  the  top  of  the  tree  is  twelve  feet.  (See  Fig.  61.) 

By  reference  to  the  table  of  areas  of  circles  on  page  171, 
the  areas  at  each  point  calipered  are  found: 

Area  at  diameter  of  9  inches 4418 

Area  at  diameter  of  8  inches 3491 

Area  at  diameter  of  7  inches 2673 

Area  at  diameter  of  6  inches 1963 

Area  at  diameter  of  5  inches 13G4 

Area  at  diameter  of  4  inches 0873 

Area  at  diameter  of  3  inches 0491 

Sum  of  areas. . .          ...  1.5273 


F<  )U  KST    M ]•: XST 'RATION. 


171 


AREAS  OF  CIRCLES. 


s  • 

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0.9218 

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172 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


TABLE  SHOWING  COMPOUND  INTEREST  ON  ONE 
DOLLAR  FOR  ANY  NUMBER  OF  YEARS  UNTIL  THE 
INTEREST  EQUALS  THE  PRINCIPAL. 


Yrs. 

2% 

Yrs. 

2i% 

Yrs. 

3% 

Yrs. 

3i% 

Yrs. 

4% 

Yrs. 

4i% 

1 

.0200 

1 

.0250 

1 

.0300 

1 

.0350 

] 

.0400 

1 

.0450 

2 

.0404 

2 

.0506 

2 

.0609 

2 

.0712 

2 

.0816 

2 

.0920 

3 

.0612 

3 

.0768 

3 

.0927 

3 

.1087 

3 

.1248 

3 

.1411 

4 

.0824 

4 

.1038 

4 

.1255 

4 

.1475 

4 

.1698 

4 

.  1925 

5 

.1040 

5 

.1314 

5 

.1592 

5 

.1876 

5 

.2166 

5 

.2461 

6 

.1261 

6 

.1596 

6 

.1940 

6 

.2292 

6 

.2653 

6 

.3022 

7 

.1486 

.  1886 

7 

.2298 

7 

.2722 

7 

.3159 

7 

.3608 

8 

.1716 

8 

.2184 

8 

.2667 

8 

.3168 

8 

.3685 

8 

.4221 

9 

.1950 

9 

.2488 

9 

.3047 

9 

.3628 

9 

.4233 

9 

.4860 

10 

.2189 

10 

.2800 

10 

.3439 

10 

.4105 

10 

.4802 

10 

.5529 

11 

.2433 

11 

.3120 

11 

.3842 

11 

.4599 

11 

.  5394 

11 

6228 

12 

.2682 

12 

.  3448 

12 

.4257 

12 

.5110 

12 

.6010 

12 

.6958 

13 

.2936 

13 

.3785 

13 

.4685 

13 

.5639 

13 

.6650 

13 

.7721 

14 

.3194 

14 

.4129 

14 

.5125 

14 

.6186 

14 

.7316 

14 

.8519 

15 

.3458 

15 

.4482 

15 

.5579 

15 

.6753 

15 

.8009 

15 

.9352 

16 

.3727 

16 

.4845 

16  .6047 

16 

.7339 

16 

.8729 

and 

271  dys 

17 

.4002 

17 

.5216 

17 

.6528 

17 

.7946 

17 

.9479 

Yrs 

9% 

18 

.4282 

18 

.5596 

18 

.7024 

18 

.8574 

and 

244  dys 

1 

.0900 

19 

.4568 

19 

.5986 

19 

.7535 

19 

.9225 

Yrs 

8% 

2 

.1881 

20 

.4859 

20 

.6386 

20 

.8061 

20 

.9897 

1 

.0800 

3 

.2950 

21 

.5156 

21 

.6795 

21 

.8602 

and 

54dys 

2 

.1664 

4 

.4115 

22 

.5459 

22 

.7215 

22 

.9161 

Yrs 

7% 

3 

.2597 

5 

.5386 

23 

.5768 

23 

.7646 

23 

.9735 

1 

.0700 

4 

.3604 

6 

.6771 

24 

.6084 

24 

.8087 

and 

163dvs 

2 

.1449 

5 

.4693 

7 

.8280 

25 

.6406 

25 

.8539 

Yrs 

6% 

3 

.2250 

6 

.5868 

8 

.9925 

26 

.6734 

26 

.9002 

1 

.0600 

4 

.3107 

7 

.7138 

and 

15  dys 

27 

.,7068 

27 

.9478 

2 

.1236 

5 

.4025 

8 

.8509 

Yrs 

10% 

28 

.7410 

28 

.9964 

3 

.1910 

6 

.5007 

9 

.9990 

1 

.1000 

29 

.7758 

and 

26dvs 

4 

.2624 

.6057 

and 

2  dys 

2 

.2100 

30 

.8113 

Yrs 

5% 

5 

.  3382 

8 

.7181 

3 

.3310 

31 

.8475 

1 

.0500 

6 

.4185 

9 

.  8384 

4 

.4641 

32 

.8845 

2 

.1025 

7 

.5036 

10 

.9671 

5 

.6105 

33 

.9222 

3 

.1576 

8 

.5938 

and 

87dys 

6 

.7715 

34 

.9606 

4 

.2155 

9 

.6894 

7 

.9487 

35 

.9998 

5 

.2762 

10 

.7908 

and 

95  dys 

and 

Iday 

6 

.3400 

11 

.8982 

7 

.4071 

and 

326dys 

8 

.4774 

9 

.5513 

10 

.6288 

11 

.7103 

12 

.7958 

13 

.8856 

14 

.9799 

and 

74dys 

THE  USE  OF  THE  COMPOUND-INTEREST  TABLE. 

The  compound  interest  given  in  the  table  is  on  one  dollar,  and  is  always 
cents,  mills,  etc.,  so  the  principal  must  be  multiplied  by  it  and  the  product 
pointed  off  ~,s  in  any  multiplication  involving  decimals. 

Example:  $450 at  3^.  16years  =  450X  .6047  =  $272.12,  the  compound  interest: 
then  $450 +  $272. 12  =  $722.12,  the  amount  at  compound  interest. 


FOREST   MENSURATION.  173 

It  will  be  noticed  that  these  areas  are  taken  at  the 
middle  of  a  four-foot  section;  so  multiplying  the  sum  by 
four,  the  volume  of  the  trunk,  from  the  ground  to  a  height 
of  28  feet,  is  found  to  be  6.1092  cubic  feet.  Treating 
the  top  length  of  twelve  feet  as  a  cone,  its  volume  is  one- 
third  times  the  basal  area  into  the  height — .0341  X 12  -s-3  = 
.1364  cubic  feet — which  added  to  the  volume  of  the 
lower  portion  gives  total  volume  of  the  tree  6.2456  cubic 
feet. 

MEASUREMENT   OF    GROWING    STOCK. 

The  Growing  Stock  of  a  Forest,  or  Volume  of  Standing 
Timber,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  all  the  trees. 
Where  the  tract  is  small  caliper  all  the  trees,  or  if  the 
tract  is  large  caliper  all  the  trees  on  a  small  sample  area 
selected  as  typical  of  the  whole.  If  each  species  is  in 
uniform  stand,  separation  into  species  classes  will  be 
sufficient,  but  where  much  difference  exists  between  in- 
dividuals of  the  same  species,  due  to  conditions  of  growth, 
diameter,  and  height,  classes  in  each  species  should  be 
formed,  and  the  volume  of  each  class  computed  by  itself. 
From  the  diameters  obtained  by  calipering  at  breast- 
height  the  average  basal  area  is  determined  in  each  class, 
and  trees  of  corresponding  diameters  in  each  class  are 
felled  and  measured  accurately.  The  volume  of  a  sample 
tree,  or  the  mean  volume  of  several  sample  trees,  times  the 
number  of  trees,  gives  the  volume  of  that  class,  and  the 
sum  of  the  volumes  of  the  different  classes  is  the  total 
volume  of  timber  on  the  tract.  The  more  sample  trees 
that  are  measured,  the  more  accurate  will  be  the  results, 
as  trees  vary  so  much  in  shape  that  quite  different  vol- 
umes may  be  obtained  for  two  trees  of  the  same  diame- 
ter and  height.  The  following  example  illustrates  this 
method; 


174  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

A  Sample  Acre    of  Jack   Pine  Shows   the  Following 
Stand: 

Diameter,                                                                          No.  Baspl 

Breast-Height.                                                                   Trees.  Area. 

2  inches 1  .0218 

3  inches 6  .2946 

4  inches 6  .5238 

5  inches 16  2. 1824 

6  inches 33  6.4775 

7  inches 40  10.6920 

8  inches 60  20 .9460 

9  inches 56  24.7408 

10  inches 46  25.0884 

11  inches 29  29 . 1400 

12  inches 11  8.6394 

13  inches 9  8.2962 

14  inches 2  2.1380 

15  inches.  ..                                      2  2.4544 


317     141.6357 

Putting  all  these  trees  in  one  class,  and  dividing  the 
total  basal  area  by  the  number  of  trees,  the  mean  basal 
area  is  found  to  be  .4468,  which  would  correspond  to  a 
diameter,  at  breast-height,  of  nine  inches.  Selecting 
a  tree  nine  inches  in  diameter,  it  is  felled  and  measured 
accurately,  and  the  volume  found  to  be  11.63  cubic 
feet.  This  volume  of  the  sample  tree  is  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  trees,  317,  for  the  total  volume  on  the  acre 
— 3,686.71  cubic  feet.  Greater  accuracy  maybe  attained 
by  taking  a  sample  tree  for  each  diameter  size,  and  a  forest 
may  be  measured  in  miniature  by  felling  and  measuring 
a  proportionate  number  of  each  diameter,  say  one  per 
cent,  of  each. 

The  volume  of  a  sample  tree,  or  of  sample  trees,  is  often 
found  by  applying  the  factor  of  shape,  which  has  been  pre- 
viously determined  for  that  particular  species  and  locality. 

The  Conversion  of  Cubic  Feet  Total  Volume  of  Stand- 
ing Timber  into  Feet  Board  Measure  may  be  done  roughly 


FOREST   MENSURATION.  175 

by  considering  1,000  cubic  feet  as  the  equivalent  of  from 
4,000  to  7,000  feet  board  measure,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  trees,  young  growths  giving  much  less  than  old 
growths. 

The  Conversion  of  Cubic  Feet  Firewood  into  Cords  is 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  factors  which  experience 
has  shown  to  be  practically  accurate.  A  cord  of  wood 
piled  up  occupies  128  cubic  feet  of  space,  but  on  account 
of  the  shape  of  the  sticks  much  of  this  is  air  space,  and 
the  actual  wood  content  much  less  than  128  cubic  feet. 
In  Germany  a  cord  has  been  found  to  contain  83.2  cubic 
feet  of  wood.  In  Saxony,  Dr.  Schenck  says  that  eighty-six 
cubic  feet  make  a  cord  of  ordinary  firewood,  and  that 
25.73  cubic  feet  of  branch  stuff  will  pile  up  to  a  cord.  At 
the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  by  actual  measurement 
of  round,  straight  sticks,  a  cord  has  been  found  to  contain 
as  high  as  102  cubic  feet.  This  factor  of  102  cubic  feet 
may  apply  very  well  to  straight,  well- trimmed  spruce, 
tamarack,  etc.,  free  from  knots  and  limbs,  but  will  be  too 
high  for  Oak  and  similar  wood,  which  is  inclined  to  be 
more  crooked,  and  does  not  pile  so  closely.  A  cord  of  small 
oak  averaging  3.4  inches  in  diameter  and  ranging  from 
1.5  to  7.5  inches,  consisting  of  274  four-foot  sticks,  meas- 
ured 69.67  cubic  feet.  Averaging  these  two  extremes, 
85.85  cubic  feet  is  found  in  a  cord  of  mixed  wood,  corre- 
sponding very  nearly  to  the  figure  given  by  Dr.  Schenck. 

RATE   OF   GROWTH. 

The  Accretion  of  a  Tree  is  the  Increase  in  Wood  Con- 
tent as  the  Result  of  its  Activity  During  the  Growing 
Periods.  The  rate  of  growth  is  indicated  by  the  increase 
in  diameter,  in  height,  or  in  mass,  and  may  be  considered 
as  annual  or  as  periodic.  The  diameter  accretion  is 
equal  to  twice  the  thickness  of  the  annual  rings  for  the 


176  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

desired  period,  measured  on  the  average  radius.  The 
current  annual  increase  in  diameter  is  taken  as  the  average 
of  several  years  back,  as  five  or  ten  years.  It  is  deter- 
mined by  counting  off  the  required  number  of  rings  from 
the  bark  in  and  measuring  their  thickness.  Twice  that 
thickness  divided  by  the  number  of  years  in  the  period 
will  give  the  current  annual  diameter  increase. 

The  Height  Accretion  is  Determined  by  counting  and 
measuring  the  annual  cones  which  appear  in  a  longitudinal 
section,  or  by  measuring  the  length  of  log  between  two 
cross-sections  which  was  grown  in  the  time  indicated  by 
the  difference  in  the  number  of  annual  rings  at  the  two 
sections. 

For  example:  A  log  is  fourteen  feet  long.  The  lower 
end  shows  178  annual  rings  and  the  upper  end  150  annual 
rings.  The  difference  in  the  number  of  these  rings  is  28, 
or  twenty-eight  years  were  required  to  grow  the  fourteen 
feet  in  length  between  the  two  cuts.  The  number  of 
annual  rings  at  any  cross-section  indicate  the  lifetime  of 
that  portion  of  the  tree  above  the  section. 

Mass  Accretion  is  the  Increase  in  Volume  of  the  Grow- 
ing Tree.  The  volume  increase  of  standing  trees  can  only 
be  arrived  at  approximately,  and  is  based  on  the  measure- 
ment of  the  volumes  of  trees  of  different  ages;  the  differ- 
ence will  be  the  increase  for  the  period.  The  increase 
in  volume  is  often  calculated  as  simple  interest,  but  where 
the  mass  of  the  tree  is  considered  as  capital,  interest  is 
computed  as  compound. 

The  Rate  of  Mass  Accretion  of  a  Standing  Tree  May 
be  Determined  in  the  following  manner:  In  mature 
trees  the  height  growth  per  year  is  inconsiderable,  and 
may  be  disregarded  for  short  periods  of  time.  The  pres- 
ent and  past  volumes,  then,  vary  as  their  respective 
basal  areas.  Taking  twice  the  width  of  the  rings  for  the 
period  desired  from  the  present  diameter  will  give  ap- 


FOREST   MENSURATION.  177 

proximately  the  former  diameter  of  the  tree.  From 
this  diameter  obtain  the  area  at  that  time  and  compute 
percentage  of  growth  from  the  difference  between  that 
and  the  present  area. 

For  example:  By  cutting  into  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  or 
by  removing  a  core  of  wood  with  an  accretion  borer,  and 
measuring  the  thickness  of  the  annual  rings  for  ten  years, 
we  find  it  to  be  .5  inch,  and  the  present  diameter  of  the 
tree  inside  bark  is  twenty  inches. 

Increase  in  diameter  for  ten  years .5X  2  =  1  inch 

Diameter  of  tree  ten  years  ago 20  —  1  =  19  inches 

Present   cross-sectional  area   with   diameter  20 

inches 2 . 1817  square  feet 

Area  ten  years  ago,  with  diameter  19  inches.  ...  1 .9889  square  feet 


Increase  in  area  for  ten  years 2128  square  foot 

Per  cent,  increase 2128X  100 -f-10X  1 .9689  =  1% 


The  Determination  of  the  Rate  of  Mass  Accretion  of 
a  Standing  Tree  with  compound  interest  is  a  more  difficult 
matter,  but  Pressler,  an  eminent  German  forester,  calcu- 
lated tables  for  average  thrifty  trees  and  for  very  thrifty 
trees,  the  use  of  which  renders  the  work  of  computation 
very  simple.  The  width  of  rings  for  the  desired  period 
is  measured  and  the  diameter  divided  by  twice  the  width 
of  these  rings.  This  gives  relative  diameter,  opposite 
which,  in  Pressler's  table  (see  page  178)  will  be  found 
a  number  which  is  to  be  divided  by  the  number  of  years 
in  the  period.  The  result  will  be  the  per  cent,  of  accretion 
with  compound  interest.  For  example:  A  Cottonwood 
sixteen  inches  in  diameter  shows  a  growth  of  2.2  inches 
on  the  radius  for  the  last  ten  years.  The  diameter  in- 
crease would  then  be  4.4  inches,  and  by  dividing  the  diam- 
eter by  the  diameter  increase,  3.6  is  found  to  be  the  rela- 
tive diameter.  In  Pressler's  tables,  opposite  3.6  is  found 


178 


PRINCIPLES  OF  AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 


the  number  81  in  the  column  of  average  thrifty  trees.  Di- 
vide 81  by  10  (the  number  of  years)  and  obtain  the  rate 
of  increase  with  compound  interest,  8.1  per  cent. 

PRESSLER'S  TABLE. 


II 

|{ 

i 

lelative 
iameter. 

i 

Very 
-iftyTree.  | 

ll 

|| 

A 

|| 

ll 

1 

{elative 
iameter.  | 

fif 

«« 

H 

"I 

fi 

H 

H 

«P 

^1 

£ 

~5 

*& 

H 

0 

H   H 

2.0 

144 

156 

5.9 

49 

54 

9.7 

29 

3° 

18.5 

15 

17 

39 

6.97.8 

2.1 

138 

150 

6.0 

48 

53 

9.8 

29 

32 

1!)  0 

14 

16 

40 

6.8  7.6 

2.2 

132 

144 

6.1 

47 

53 

9.9 

28 

32 

19.5 

14 

16 

41 

6  6,7.4 

2.3 

127 

139 

6.2 

46 

52 

10.0 

31 

2(1.0 

14 

15 

42 

6.417.2 

2.4 

122 

134 

6.3 

45 

51 

10.2 

27 

31 

20..-) 

13 

15 

43 

6.37.1 

2.5 

117 

129 

6.4 

45 

50 

10  4 

27 

30 

21.0 

13 

44 

6.1  6.9 

2.6 

113 

124 

6.5 

44 

49 

10.6 

26 

30 

21.5 

13 

14 

45|6.0  6.7 

2.7 

109 

120 

6.6 

43 

48 

10.8 

29 

22.0 

12 

14 

465.96.6 

2.8 

105 

116 

6.7 

42 

48 

11.0 

9- 

28 

22.,-) 

12 

14 

475.86.5 

2.9 

101 

112 

6.8 

42 

47 

11.2 

25 

28 

23.0 

12 

13 

485.  C  6.3 

3.0 

98 

109 

6.9 

41 

46 

11.4 

27 

I'.S  .  r> 

12 

13 

505.4,6.1 

3.1 

95 

105 

7.0 

40 

45 

11.6 

24 

27 

24.0 

11 

13 

525.25.9 

3.2 

92 

102 

7.1 

40 

45 

11.8 

23 

26 

24..-, 

11 

12 

545.1  5.7 

3.3 

89 

99 

7.2 

39 

44 

12.  f 

23 

26 

25.0 

11 

12 

5614.  C  5.5 

3.4 

86 

96 

39 

44 

23 

!>.->  .  5 

11 

12 

584.7  5.3 

3.5 

84 

93 

7  '.4 

38 

43 

1°  A 

22 

9- 

.'<).<> 

10 

12 

60,4.5  5.1 

3.6 

81 

91 

7.5 

38 

42 

12'.G 

22 

25 

I'll..-, 

10 

12 

624.4  4.9 

3.7 

79 

88 

7.6 

37 

42 

12.8 

24 

27.0 

10 

11 

644.24.7 

3.8 

77 

86 

7.7 

37 

41 

13.0 

21 

24 

27  .  5 

9.9 

11 

66 

4.1  4.6 

3.9 

7£ 

84 

7.8 

36 

41 

13.2 

21 

24 

L'S.O 

9.7 

11 

68 

3.9  4.4 

.0 

73 

81 

7.9 

36 

40 

13.4 

21 

23 

2N  .  5 

9.5 

11 

70 

3.84.3 

.1 

71 

79J 

8.0 

35 

40 

13.6 

20 

93 

29.0 

9.3 

11 

3.7  4.2 

69 

8.1 

35 

39 

i  :•;  .  s 

20 

23 

10.5 

74 

3.64.1 

.  3 

68 

76 

8.2 

34 

39 

14.0 

20 

22 

SO  0 

9'.0 

10.0 

76 

3.6!4.0 

.4 

66 

74, 

8.3 

34 

38 

14.2 

19 

22 

30i5 

8.9 

10.0 

78 

3.53.9 

i  5 

65 

72 

8.4 

34 

38 

14.4 

19 

22 

31.0 

8.7 

9.8 

80 

3.4,3.8 

4^6 

63 

70 

8.5 

33 

37 

14.6 

19 

21 

31.5 

8.6 

9.7 

85 

3.2  3.6 

4.7 

62 

69 

8.6 

33 

37 

14.8 

19 

21 

32.0 

8.5 

9.5 

90 

3.0  3.4 

4.8 

60 

67  i 

8.7 

32 

36 

15.0 

18 

21 

52  .  .' 

8.4 

9.4 

100 

2.7  3.0 

4.9 

59 

66 

8.8 

32 

36 

18 

20 

5:?.0 

8.2 

9.2 

110 

2.4  2.7 

5.0 

58 

65 

8.9 

32 

35 

1  5  4 

18 

20 

5:5  .  5 

8.1 

9.1 

120 

2.2  2,5 

5.1 

56 

63 

9.0 

31 

35 

15^6 

18 

20 

34.0 

7.9 

8.9 

1.30 

2.1  2.3 

5.2 

55 

62 

9.1 

31 

35 

15.8 

17 

20 

51  .  5 

7.8 

8.8 

140 

1.9  2.2 

5.3 

54 

61 

9.2 

31 

34 

16.0 

17 

19 

7.7 

8.6 

150 

1.8  2.0 

5.4 

53 

60 

9.3 

30 

34 

16.5 

17 

19 

55  !  5 

7.6 

8.5 

170,1.6,1.8 

5.5 

52 

59 

9.4 

30 

34 

17.0 

16 

18 

36.0 

7.5 

8.4 

200(1.3:1.5 

5.6 

51 

57 

9.5 

29 

33 

17.5 

16 

18 

37.0 

7.3 

8.2 

250  1.111.2 

5.7 

50 

56 

9.6 

29 

33 

18.0 

15 

17 

38.0 

7.1 

8.0 

300 

0.9  1.0 

5.8 

49 

55 

In  Determining  the  Accretion  of  aFelled  Tree  the  volume 
is  computed  from  actual  measurements.  By  a  few  trials 
the  top  is  cut  off  where  the  section  contains  as  many  rings 
as  there  are  years  in  the  period  for  which  the  accretion  is 
desired,  and  the  height  of  the  tree  at  that  time  measured. 


FOREST    MENSURATION. 


179 


The  difference  in  volumes  past  and  present  gives  periodic 

T 


65  Rings 


FIG.  62. — Diagram  illustrating  the  progressive  volume  of  a  tree. 

accretion.    The  diameter  for  both  the  past  and  present 
tree  may  be  taken  at  the  middle  of  the  topless  stem,  and 


180 


PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


volumes  found  by  multiplying  their  respective  cross- 
sectional  areas  at  that  point  by  the  length  of  the  topless 
trunk. 

A  more  careful  stem  analysis  of  a  tree  affords  detailed 
measurements  from  which  the  volume  at  any  time  during 
its  lifetime  may  be  determined  very  accurately.  The  fol- 
lowing table  cf  measurements  of  a  Pine  will  furnish  data 
for  the  calculation  of  its  volume  at  different  ages,  and 
its  progressive  development  is  graphically  illustrated  in 
Fig.  62. 


•il 

J* 

"* 

_ 

Accretion  in   Inches  During  Past 

•3  = 

Seg 

033 

Age. 

II 

c  ^ 

3*§ 

I- 

.2'S 

10 
Years. 

20 
Years. 

30 
Years. 

40 
Years. 

50 
Years. 

60 
Years. 

70 
Years. 

S          Q 

0 

2  I  9.3 

8.52 

65 

.54 

1.10 

1.60 

2.16 

2.80 

3.70 

4.26 

10 

7.8 

7.16 

57 

.38 

.94 

1.34 

1.92 

2.68 

3.58 

18 

7.1 

6.98 

51 

.40 

.96 

1.42 

2.25 

2.81 

3.49 

26 

6.3 

5.88 

42 

.42 

.99 

1.51 

2.38 

2.94 

34 

5.7 

4.92 

39 

.44 

1.03 

1.71 

2.46 

42 

4.4 

3.94 

28 

.48 

1.23 

1.97 

50 

3.0 

2.48 

19 

.56 

1   24 

58 

.5 

.48 

5 

.24 

60 

Top 

The  Accretion  of  a  Forest  for  a  given  number  of  years 
is  found  by  multiplying  the  accretion  of  the  sample  tree 
for  that  period  by  the  number  of  trees  per  acre  and  the 
number  of  acres  in  the  tract.  If  the  trees  are  arranged 
in  diameter  classes,  the  accretion  of  each  class  is  determined 
and  the  sum  of  accretions  of  all  the  classes  taken  as  the 
accretion  of  the  forest. 

The  Working  Plan  of  a  forest  contemplates  the  economic 
management  of  the  growing  crop,  so  that  there  may  be 
cut  each  year  not  to  exceed  the  amount  of  the  annual 
accretion;  or,  if  worked  on  the  rotation  plan,  so  that  there 
may  be  cut  at  any  one  time  not  more  than  the  accretion 


FOREST   MENSURATION.  181 

for  the  period  of  rotation,  thus  leaving  the  capital  stock 
unimpaired.  The  methods  of  measurement  described 
are  used  in  outlining  this  plan. 

The  Estimation  of  Standing  Timber  is  usually  a  matter 
of  personal  experience  on  the  part  of  the  estimator.  No 
measurements  are  taken  of  trees,  but  the  estimate  is  made 
by  men  of  long  experience  in  the  woods.  Sometimes 
their  figures  are  very  close,  but  more  often  they  fall  short 
of  the  actual  stand  of  timber.  Buying  and  selling  timber 
lands  is  based  on  this  method  of  determining  the  possible 
crop,  both  parties  sending  out  their  own  estimators.  The 
number  of  trees  on  typical  areas,  as  an  acre  in  each  forty, 
may  be  counted,  and  the  sizes  estimated.  Often  all 
timber  trees  on  a  forty-acre  lot  are  counted,  and  the  number 
of  logs  per  1,000  feet  board  measure  estimated. 

For  an  inexperienced  person  a  good  method  would  be 
to  caliper  all  trees  on  typical  areas  of  the  tract  and  then 
compute  the  stand  from  the  cross-sectional  area  and  the 
average  length  of  timber  stick,  wrhich  could  be  estimated 
very  closely  after  a  little  practice.  The  greatest  difficulty 
in  this  work  lies  in  the  selection  of  typical  areas  and 
sample  trees.  All  forestry  measurements  and  estimates 
are  only  approximations,  and  it  is  often  found  necessary 
to  modify  working  plans  to  meet  new  information  and 
changed  conditions. 

MEASUREMENT    OF    LOGS    AND    LUMBER. 

Logs  are  Measured  in  Feet  Board  Measure  in  Ordinary 
Practice  by  taking  the  length  and  diameter  at  the  small 
end,  and  by  reference  to  a  table,  the  corresponding  number 
of  feet,  board  measure,  is  found,  which  it  is  assumed  could 
be  sawed  from  the  log.  This  is  not  usually  accurate,  but 
seems  to  be  sufficiently  so  for  business  purposes.  Lumber 
is  measured  in  square  feet  of  surface  of  a  board  one  inch 


182  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

in  thickness,  commonly  called  board  measure  or  B.  M., 
for  short. 

Scaling  Logs  in  Ordinary  Practice  is  a  Simple  Matter. 

It  is  done  after  they  are  cut  from  the  tree  and  marked, 
wherever  convenient — in  the  woods,  on  skidways,  on  cars, 
on  the  river,  or  elsewhere.  For  straight,  sound  logs  no 
experience  is  necessary,  but  for  defective  logs  the  sealer's 
judgment  is  depended  upon  to  make  proper  deduction, 
so  as  to  get  out  good  lumber.  Private  sealers  may  be 
employed  by  those  interested,  but,  to  avoid  possible 
litigation  over  sales,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  surveyor- 
general  of  logs  and  lumber  for  the  district  appoint  an 
official  sealer  to  do  the  work.  The  sealers  enter  in  a 
book  carried  for  the  purpose  the  number  of  logs  scaled, 
the  length,  the  feet  B.  M.;  the  number  of  each  log  if  num- 
bered, the  section,  township,  and  range  where  cut,  and  the 
markings.  These  books  are  kept  on  file  in  the  surveyor- 
general's  office  or  elsewhere  for  future  reference. 

There  are  Various  Rules  for  the  measuring  of  timber 
in  this  country.  Those  most  commonly  used  are  the 
Scribner  and  Doyle  rules. 

The  M  innsota  Law  provides  that  Scribner's  rule  shall 
be  the  only  legal  rule  for  the  survey  of  logs  in  that  State, 
and  that  every  log  shall  be  surveyed  by  the  largest  num- 
ber of  even  feet  which  it  contains  in  length  over  ten  feet 
and  under  twenty-four  feet,  and  all  logs  of  twenty-four 
feet  or  more  shall  be  surveyed  as  two  logs  or  more.  As 
to  what  Scribner's  rule  is,  the  law  does  not  say,  and  yet 
requires  it  to  be  posted  in  the  offices  of  the  surveyors- 
general  of  logs  and  lumber.  The  table  on  page  183  is  a 
copy  of  Scribner's  rule  as  posted  there  according  to  law. 

Doyle's  Rule  is  most  commonly  used.  It  is,  however, 
open  to  the  same  objections  as  Scribner's  rule,  but  is  much 
more  unjust  to  logs  under  sixteen  inches  in  diameter.  This 
rule  is  very  simple  and  assumes  that  any  log  sixteen  feet 


FOREST    MENSURATION. 


183 


SCRIBNER'S  RULE. 


Diameters 
in  Icnhes. 

Log  Lengths  in  Feet. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

8 

24 

28 

32 

40 

44 

48 

9 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

10 

40 

45 

50 

55 

65 

70 

11 

50 

55 

65 

70 

80 

90 

12 

59 

69 

79 

88 

98 

108 

13 

73 

85 

97 

109 

122 

134 

14 

86 

100 

114 

129 

143 

157 

15 

107 

125 

142 

160 

178 

196 

16 

119 

139 

159 

178 

198 

218 

17 

139     162 

185 

208 

232 

255 

18 

160     187 

213 

240 

267 

293 

19 

180     210 

240 

270 

300 

330 

20 

210     245 

280 

315 

350 

385 

21 

228     266 

304 

342 

380 

418 

22 

251     292 

334 

376 

418 

460 

23 

283 

330 

377 

424 

470 

518 

24 

303 

353 

404 

454 

505 

555 

25 

344 

401 

459 

516 

573 

631 

26 

375 

439 

500 

562 

625 

688 

27 

411 

479 

548 

616 

684 

753 

28 

436 

.509 

582 

654 

728 

800 

29 

457 

539 

609 

685 

761 

838 

30 

493 

575 

657 

739 

821 

904 

31 

532 

622 

710 

799 

888 

976 

32 

552 

644 

/36 

828 

920 

1012 

33 

588 

686 

784 

882 

980 

34 

eoo 

700 

800 

900 

1000 

35 

657 

76P 

876 

985 

1095 

36 

692 

807 

923 

1038 

1152 

37 

772 

901 

1029 

1158 

1287 

38 

801 

934 

1068 

1201 

39 

840 

980 

1120 

1260 

40 

903 

1053 

1204 

1354 

41 

954 

1113 

1272 

1431 

42 

1007 

1175 

1343 

43 

1046 

1222 

1396 

44 

1110 

1295 

1430 

45 

1139 

1315 

1587 

46 

1190 

1380 

1656 

47 

1242 

1445 

1728 

48 

1296 

1512 

1818 

184  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

long  is  equal  in  feet  board  measure  to  the  square  of  the 
diameter  reduced  by  four.  Thus  a  log  twenty-four  inches 
in  diameter  and  sixteen  feet  long  would  be  estimated 
as  (24  -  4)  X  (24  -  4)  =  400  feet  board  measure.  If  it  is 
eighteen  feet  long  it  would  be  estimated  as  400  X  j£  or 
450  fe-et.  This  rule  is  so  simple  that  any  one  acquainted 
with  figures  can  easily  construct  a  working  table.  A  table 
of  this  sort  is  given  on  page  185. 

Scribner's  and  Doyle's  Rules  are  not  Adapted  to  the 
measurement  of  logs  that  are  to  be  used  for  paper-pulp, 
and  here  probably  the  fairest  method  is  to  caliper  the 
logs  in  the  middle,  allowing  for  the  bark,  and  compute 
the  volume  as  a  cylinder  with  that  diameter.  This  gives 
a  close  approximation  of  the  cubic  contents,  which  is  what 
is  wanted.  In  the  case  of  long  logs  that  taper  very  fast, 
these  rules  will  also  fail  to  give  a  fair  measurement,  and 
in  such  cases  logs  will  frequently  scale  more  by  these  rules 
after  they  are  shortened  a  few  feet,  which  is  absurd.  These 
points  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  using  them.  The  Dimick 
rule  is  used  in  the  Adirondacks  for  spruce  pulp  wood. 

The  New  Hampshire  Rule  for  Measuring  Timber  is  in 
use  in  New  Hampshire.  Here  an  artificial  cubic  foot 
has  been  made  by  law  and  is  equal  to  1.4  of  the  standard 
cubic  foot.  This  is  a  caliper  rule,  which  gives  the  con- 
tents of  a  log  from  length  and  diameter  at  middle,  seven- 
eighths  of  an  inch  by  the  structure  of  the  rule  being  thrown 
out  for  the  bark.  The  law  on  the  subject  is  as  follows: 

"All  round  ship  timber  shall  be  measured  according  to 
the  following  rule:  A  stick  of  timber  sixteen  inches  in 
diameter  and  twelve  inches  in  length  shall  constitute  one 
cubic  foot,  and  in  the  same  ratio  for  any  other  size  and 
quantity;  forty  feet  shall  constitute  one  ton. 

"  All  round  timber  the  quantity  of  which  is  estimated  by 
the  thousand  shall  be  measured  according  to  the  following 
rule:  A  stick  of  timber  sixteen  inches  in  diameter  and 


FOREST   MENSURATION. 


185 


DOYLE'S  RULE. 


Log  Lengths  in  Feet. 


in  inches. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

8 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

9 

19 

22 

25 

28 

31 

34 

10 

27 

32 

36 

41 

46 

50 

11 

37 

43 

49 

55 

61 

67 

12 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

13 

61 

71 

81 

91 

101 

111 

1-i 

75 

88 

100 

112 

125 

137 

15 

91 

106 

121 

136 

151 

166 

16 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

198 

17 

127 

148 

169 

190 

211 

232 

18 

147 

171 

196 

220 

245 

269 

19 

169 

197 

225 

253 

280 

309 

20 

192 

224 

256 

288 

320 

352 

21 

217 

253 

289 

325 

361 

397 

22 

243 

283 

324 

364 

404 

445 

23 

271 

313 

359 

406 

452 

496 

24 

300 

350 

400 

450 

500 

550 

25 

331 

386 

441 

496 

551 

606 

26 

363 

423 

484 

544 

605 

665 

27 

397 

463 

530 

596 

661 

726 

28 

432 

504 

566 

648 

720 

792 

29 

469 

547 

625 

703 

782 

860 

30 

507 

591 

676 

761 

845 

930 

31 

547 

638 

729 

820 

912 

1004 

32 

588 

686 

784 

882 

980 

1078 

33 

631 

736 

841 

946 

1051 

1156 

34 

675 

787 

900 

1012 

1125 

1237 

35 

721 

841 

961 

1081 

1202 

1322 

36 

768 

896 

1024 

1152 

1280 

1408 

37 

817 

953 

1089 

1225 

1361 

1497 

38 

867 

1011 

1156 

1300 

1446 

1590 

39 

910 

1070 

1225 

1379 

1530 

1684 

40 

972 

1134 

1296 

1458 

1620 

1782 

41 

1027 

1198 

1369 

1540 

1711 

1882 

42 

1083 

1264 

1444 

1625 

1805 

1986 

43 

1141 

1331 

1521 

1711 

1902 

2091 

44 

1200 

1400 

1600 

1800 

2000 

2200 

45 

1261 

1471 

1681 

1891 

2102 

2312 

46 

1323 

1544 

1764 

1985 

2206 

2426 

47 

1387 

1618 

1849 

2080 

2312 

2542 

48 

1452 

1694 

1936 

2178 

2420 

2662 

twelve  inches  in  length  shall  constitute  one  cubic  foot, 
and  the  same  ratio  shall  apply  to  any  other  size  and 


186 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


quantity.     Each  cubic  foot  shall  constitute  ten  feet  of 
thousand." 


THE  NEW  HAMPSHIRE  RULE. 


Diameters 
in  Inches. 

Log  Lengths  in  Feet. 

12       14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

8 

26  i    30 

35 

39 

43 

48 

9 

33 

38 

43 

50 

54 

60 

10 

41 

48 

54 

61 

68 

75 

11 

50 

57 

66 

74 

82 

90 

12 

58 

69 

78 

88 

97 

108 

13 

70 

80 

92 

103 

115 

126 

14 

80 

93 

106 

120 

133 

146 

15 

91 

107 

123 

137 

153 

168 

16 

104 

122 

139 

157 

174 

191 

17 

117 

137 

157 

177 

199 

216 

18 

132 

154 

176 

198 

220 

242 

19 

148 

171 

191 

221 

245 

270 

20 

163 

190 

217 

244 

271 

299 

21 

180 

210 

240 

270 

300 

330 

22 

.  197 

230 

262 

296 

329 

362 

23 

216 

251 

287 

323 

359 

396 

24 

235 

274 

313 

352 

391 

430 

25 

255 

297 

339 

383 

424 

467 

26 

276 

322 

367 

413 

459 

505 

27 

297 

347 

397 

446 

496 

554 

28 

319 

373 

426 

479 

533 

586 

29 

343 

400 

457 

514 

572 

629 

30 

367 

428 

489 

550 

611 

672 

31 

391 

457 

514 

588 

6.53 

718 

32 

417 

487 

557 

626 

696 

765 

33 

443 

517 

592 

666 

740 

814 

34 

471 

549 

628 

707 

785 

863 

35 

499 

583 

666 

749 

832 

916 

36 

528 

617 

704 

792 

880 

969 

37 

558 

651 

744 

837 

930 

1023 

38 

589 

687 

785 

883 

981 

1079 

39 

620 

723 

827 

930 

1034 

1137 

40 

543 

685 

799 

914 

1028 

1142 

The  Number  of  Feet  B.  M.  which  May  be  Obtained 
from  a  Log  varies  with  the  management  of  the  cutting, 
the  width  of  kerf,  the  width  of  boards,  whether  one-  or 
two-inch  boards,  or  some  of  both,  are  cut  from  the  same 


FOREST  MENSURATION.  187 

log.  Usually  the  cut  exceeds  the  scale.  Take,  for  ex- 
ample, a  log  sixteen  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end, 
eighteen  inches  at  the  middle,  twenty  inches  at  the  large 
end,  and  twelve  feet  long.  Such  a  log  contains  about 
21.2  cubic  feet.  The  official  scale  gives  119  feet  B.  M., 
which  is  equal  to  9.9  cubic  feet.  The  actual  cut  should 
give  155.75  feet  B.  M.,  or  thirteen  cubic  feet  of  lumber, 
the  slab  would  be  about  5.3  cubic  feet,  and  the  kerf  (saw- 
dust) about  2.9  cubic  feet.  From  this  it  would  appear 
that  the  Minnesota  official  scale  (i.e.  Scribner's  Rule) 
gives  the  seller  46.7  per  cent,  of  his  log,  while  the  mill 
turns  out  61.3  per  cent,  in  lumber,  13.7  per  cent,  in  sawdust, 
and  25  per  cent,  in  slab.  The  producer  loses  53.3  per  cent, 
of  the  scaled  log;  but  that  is  not  all  his  loss.  In  marking 
logs  to  be  cut  the  undercutter  allows  at  least  three  inches 
over  the  required  length  to  cover  loss  in  checking;  that 
is,  a  log  scaled  at  twelve-foot  length  would  really  measure 
twelve  feet  and  three  inches  or  more. 

The  Percentage  of  the  Logs  on  which  the  seller  or  pro- 
ducer gets  returns  by  Scribner's  Rule  varies  with  different 
sizes  and  shapes.  The  table  on  p.  188  will  serve  as  a  com- 
parison: 

In  practice  these  discrepancies  are  equalized  as  the 
result  of  the  ordinary  trade  relations,  and  are  not  liable  to 
work  serious  injustice  under  present  conditions,  and  are 
here  stated  only  to  call  attention  to  our  crude  methods 
of  measuring  timber. 

INSTRUMENTS   USED    IN    FOREST   MENSURATION. 

The  Equipment  of  a  Forester,  while  not  extensive,  must 
be  complete  for  the  work  in  hand.  He  surveys  the  land, 
lays  out  roads  and  ditches,  cuts  down  trees  and  saws  them 
into  logs,  measures  diameters  of  logs  and  growing  trees, 
takes  heights  of  trees,  determines  rates  of  growth,  estimates 
and  measures  timber  and  cordwood,  and  maps  and  plats 


188 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


TABLE  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  OF  ACTUAL  VOLUME 
OF  LOGS  ON  WHICH  THE  SELLER  GETS  RETURNS 
ACCORDING  TO  SCRIBNER'S  RULE. 


Diameters, 
Inches. 

Lengths, 
Feet. 

Scale. 

Volume, 
C.F 

Per  Cent, 
of  Actual 
Volume 
Scaled. 

B.  M. 

C.F. 

21-22 

16 

304 

25.3 

40.3 

62.8 

18-19 

22 

293 

24.4 

41.1 

59.4 

18-21 

16 

213 

17.9 

33.2 

53.9 

16-18 

16 

159 

13.3 

25.2 

52.8 

15-22 

16 

142 

11.8 

29.9 

39.5 

1  -16 

14 

125 

10.6 

18.3 

57.9 

16-20 

12 

119 

9.9 

21.2 

46.7 

14-18 

12 

86 

7.2 

16.8 

42.9 

14-15 

12 

86 

7.2 

13.8 

52.2 

10-14 

20 

65 

5.4 

15.7 

34.4 

11-13 

16 

65 

5.4 

12.6 

42.9 

11-12 

16 

65 

5.4 

11.5 

47.0 

11-15 

12 

50 

4.2 

11.1 

37.8 

10-12 

16 

50 

4.2 

10.6 

39.6 

8-10 

16 

32 

2.7 

7.1 

37.8 

6-  9 

16 

16 

1.3 

4.9 

27.1 

9-11 

16 

40 

3.3 

8.7 

38.1 

8-11 

16 

32 

2.7 

7.9 

33.8 

8-12 

16 

32 

2.7 

8.7 

30.6 

8-13 

16 

32 

2.7 

9.6 

27.8 

8-12 

12 

24 

2.0 

6.5 

30.6 

8-10 

12 

24 

2.0 

5.3 

37.7 

9-11 

12 

30 

2.5 

6.5 

38.2 

his  work.  Where  there  has  been  a  survey  of  land  by  the 
government,  as  is  common,  he  will  not  be  called  upon 
to  make  one,  as  maps  sufficiently  reliable  for  his  purpose 
may  be  had  from  official  records;  but  to  meet  all  the  re- 
quirements of  his  position,  the  forester  should  be  an 
expert  surveyor,  and  provided  with  all  the  necessary  instru- 
ments for  the  work,  including  drawing  instruments,  tables, 
stationery,  etc.,  for  office  work,  in  mapping  and  platting 
his  field  observations.  The  work  of  forestry  mensuration 
is  concerned  mainly  with  taking  diameters  and  heights  of 
trees,  determining  the  areas  on  which  they  stand  and  the 
rate  of  growth. 


FOREST    MENSURATION.  189 

For  Measuring  Land  Acres  the  ordinary  steel  tape,  grad- 
uated on  one  side  in  feet,  tenths,  and  hundredths,  and  on 
the  other  side  in  links  for  convenience  in  computing  acre- 
age, is  used,  the  100-foot  length  being  preferred.  For  the 
same  purpose  a  steel  chain  is  also  used,  and  with  the  chain 
or  tape  should  be  a  set  of  marking-pins  and  ranging-poles. 
In  laying  out  small  rectangular  areas,  as  a  sample  acre, 
a  compass,  a  cross-staff  head,  an  angle  mirror,  or  an  angle 
prism  is  used,  but  for  more  extended  surveys  and  for  road 
and  ditch  work  a  transit  and  level  would  be  advisable, 
while  for  the  location  of  lost  corners  the  magnetic  com- 
pass might  have  to  be  resorted  to. 

For  the  Rough  Land  Measurement  of  a  Valuation 
Survey  a  Steel  Chain  Thirty-three  Feet  Long  is  used. 
This  short  chain  is  attached  to  a  stout  leather  belt  about 
the  waist  of  the  tallyman,  whose  hands  are  then  free 
to  carry  the  tally  board  holding  notebook  or  tally  blanks, 
and  to  work  with  a  lead-pencil.  A  small  magnetic  con>- 
pass  by  which  the  tallyman  directs  his  course  is  fixed 
on  one  corner  of  the  tally  board. 

The  Diameters  of  Trees  and  Logs  are  taken  with  a  pair 
of  wooden  calipers  of  convenient  size  for  the  timber  of  the 
district.  A  limb  or  scale  bar,  graduated  in  inches  and 
tenths,  has  a  fixed  arm  standing  out  at  right  angles  at 
one  end,  while  a  second  arm  is  movable  along  the  bar 
so  that  the  trunk  of  a  tree  may  be  enclosed  between  them 
and  the  diameter  read  directly  from  the  scale.  The 
fixed  arm  is  held  in  place  by  a  screw  so  that  it  may  be  re- 
moved for  packing  and  transportation,  or  so  that  a  broken 
part  may  be  replaced.  The  other  arm  has  an  adjustable 
plate  which  keeps  it  at  right  angles  to  the  scale  bar  when 
pressed  against  the  tree.  Sometimes  the  circumference 
of  the  tree  is  measured  with  a  steel  tape,  one  side  of  which 
is  graduated  to  give  diameters  of  circles  whose  circum- 
ferences are  read  from  the  other  side. 


190 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


The  Heights  of  Trees  are  determined  by  means  of  & 
most  convenient  and  useful  little  instrument,  called  Faust- 
man's  mirror  hypsometer.  The  distance  of  the  observer 
from  the  tree  is  measured  with  a  steel  tape,  and  the  instru- 
ment adjusted  to  that  distance  by  the  slide  and  vertical 
scale.  The  top  and  bottom  of  the  tree  are  then  sighted 


FIG.  63. — Calipering  a  tree. 

and  the  readings  of  the  marginal  scale  where  the  plumb- 
line  crosses  it  added  to  or  subtracted  from  each  other, 
according  as  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  above  or  below 
the  level  of  the  tree.  The  vertical  scale  on  the  right-hand 
side  runs  upward  from  zero  to  60,  and  is  continued  on  the 
left-hand  side,  to  110.  If  the  distance  is  less  than  sixty, 
the  lower  index  mark  of  the  slide  where  the  plumb-line 
is  attached  should  be  brought  in  a  position  coinciding 
with  the  required  reading  on  the  right-hand  scale.  If 


FORKST    MKXSURATIOX. 


191 


the  distance  is  more  than  sixty  the  slide  must  be  taken 
out  and  reversed  so  that  the  upper  index  mark  on  the 
slide  coincides  with  the  required  reading  on  the  left-hand 
vertical  scale. 


FIG.  64. — Faustman's  mirror  hypsometer.  A  BCD,  frame  of 
instrument;  E,  mirror  in  which  scab  is  reflected';  a,  eyepiece; 
b,  cross-wire  on  which  object  is  sighted;  ge,  slide  and  vertical 
scale  for  distance  of  observer  from  tree;  /,  spring  to  hold  slide 
in  place;  h,  marginal  scale  which  gives  height  of  tree. 

This  instrument  may  also  be  used  in  taking  levels  and 
grades,  and  may  be  mounted  on  a  Jacob's-staff  or  tripod, 
but  is  more  often  used  in  the  hand.  Another  instrument, 
called  "Baummesser"  by  the  Germans,  mounted  on  a 
tripod,  is  used  to  take  heights,  and  by  means  of  a  stadia 
attachment,  the  diameter  at  any  point  on  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  may  also  be  measured.  After  some  practice  with 


192 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY* 


one  of  them,  a  person  may  become  sufficiently  expert  in 
estimating  the  heights  of  trees  to  get  on  without  the 
instrument. 

The  Rate  of  Growth  of  a  Standing  Tree  may  be  deter- 
mined by  removing  from  the  trunk  a  small  cylinder  of 
wood  with  a  hollow  auger  called  an  accretion-borer.  On 
this  section  of  wood  the  annual  rings  are  counfr*!  and 


FIG.  65. — The  mirror  hypsometer  in  use. 

their  width  measured  with  a  pocket  rule  graduated  ii> 
inches  and  tenths,  or  in  millimeters.  Where  the  growth 
has  been  slow,  and  the  rings  are  close,  a  pocket  lens  may 
be  necessary  to  enable  one  to  count  th?m.  When  a  fuller 
determination  of  the  rate  of  growth  is  desirable,  trees 
are  felled  with  an  axe,  or  with  a  saw,  and  cut  into  logs.  A 
small  saw  is  easier  to  carry  around,  but  a  longer,  heavier 
saw  does  much  faster  work.  The  common  logging  saw 


FOREST   MENSURATION. 


193 


of  the  Minnesota  woods  is  six  feet  in  length.  In  making 
an  examination  of  the  end  of  a  log,  the  rough  graining 
of  the  saw  must  often  be  smoothed  away  before  the  rings 


FIG.  66. — The  accretion-be!^  ,  showing  handle,  hollow  auger,  with 
drawing-pin,  and  a  core  of  wood  extracted.  The  handle  is  hollow 
with  screw  caps,  so  that  the  other  parts  may  be  carried  inside 
when  not  in  use. 

can  be  counted  readily,  and  this  is  well  accomplished  with 
a  sharp  knife,  cutting  a  broad  V  notch  from  the  centre 
to  the  circumference. 

Miscellaneous  Instruments  used  by  the  forester.  For 
marking  logs,  blazing  trees,  cutting  away  limbs,  etc.,  a 
hand  axe  is  a  desirable  addition  to  the  equipment.  It 
should  be  small,  so  as  to  be  conveniently  carried  in  the 
pocket  or  in  the  belt,  and  should  have  a  leather  guard  to 
protect  the  edge  when  not  in  use.  As  saws  and  axes  will 
not  keep  sharp  long  if  used,  a  grindstone,  whetstones, 
files,  and  saw  sets  should  be  provided.  In  calipering  trees 
on  a  small  area  across  which  it  is  necessary  to  make  several 
trips,  the  surveyor  avoids  repetitions  by  marking  the  bark 
of  each  tree,  as  he  calipers  it,  with  a  metal  scratcher  carried 
in  one  hand.  Sometimes  a  pair  of  climbers  are  used  to  get 


194 


PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


into  the  top  of  a  tree  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  upper 
limbs  and  diameters.  The  number  of  feet  board  measure 
in  logs  is  ascertained  by  means  of  the  ordinary  log  rule, 
Minnesota  standard,  used  by  sealers,  and  a  board  rule 
measures  the  lumber  as  it  comes  from  the  sawmill. 


FIG.  67. — Using  the  accretion-borer  on  the 
trunk  of  a  tree. 


A  Camping  Outfit  is  necessary  where  the  work  of  the  for- 
ester is  done  in  the  depths  of  the  forest,  far  from  habitations 
and  railroads,  and  perhaps  a  wagon  and  a  team  of  horses 
or  pack  horses  should  be  provided  for  moving  camp  and 
hauling  supplies.  If  the  area  to  be  worked  over  is  great, 
the  chief  of  the  party  should  have  a  good  saddle  horse,  so 
that  he  may  get  over  the  country  quickly  and  lay  out 
work  for  his  subordinates  who  operate  on  foot. 


CHAPTER    XI. 
FOREST  PROBLEMS. 

THE  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  give  general  suggestions 
which  may  be  applied  to  a  variety  of  conditions,  and 
not  to  prescribe  exact  treatment  for  any  special  forest 
problem.  It  has  seemed  that  certain  methods  of  treatment 
could  be  best  given  in  this  way. 

i.  A  has  a  swamp  covered  with  thrifty  Black  Spruce, 
in  all  about  seventy-five  acres.  Last  year  he  got  500 
Christmas  trees  from  it,  which  he  sold  at  eight  cents 
each.  There  is  also  some  Tamarack  and  Pine  on  the 
higher  land.  For  what  trees  can  this  land  be  used  for 
greatest  profit?  How  long  does  it  take  to-  grow  Christmas 
trees? 

Answer:  If  the  Black  Spruce  are  thrifty,  it  is  a  very 
sure  indication  that  the  soil  is  not  overly  wet  during  the 
summer,  and  that  it  is  in  very  good  shape  for  Tamarack 
or  other  more  valuable  tree.  The  Black  Spruce  is  a  very 
slow  grower,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  should  be  encouraged 
under  any  condition.  Our  native  White  Spruce  grows 
much  faster,  and  this  would  be  much  the  most  profitable 
of  any  of  our  native  trees  for  paper  pulp ;  but  some  studies 
by  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  seem  to  show  that 
the  Norway  Spruce  could  be  grown  at  even  greater  profit 
for  paper  pulp.  This  tree  is  fully  as  rapid  a  grower  as 
the  White  Spruce,  nearly  as  hardy,  and  the  seed  of  it  is 
much  more  easily  obtained.  If  it  is  thought  desirable 
to  use  this  land  for  pulp  wood,  a  small  bed  of  spruce  seed- 

195 


196  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

lings  should  be  made  up  near  by,  in  which  should  be  sown 
White  or  Norway  Spruce  seed,  and  when  the  seedlings 
are  three  or  four  years  old  they  should  be  transplanted 
to  the  swamp.  It  would  take  at  least  fifteen  years  to  grow 
Black  Spruce  to  a  height  of  six  feet  for  Christmas  trees, 
while  the  Norway  Spruce  could  probably  be  grown  to  the 
same  height  under  same  conditions  in  eight  years.  About 
1,800  Christmas  trees  can  be  grown  on  one  acre  of  land 
to  a  height  of  six  feet  and  with  a  spread  of  five  feet. 
Spruce  may  be  grown  closer  together  than  most  other 
trees  for  this  purpose,  because  the  shaded  branches  are 
not  easily  killed  out. 

2.  B  has  a  Tamarack  swamp  in  Southern  Ontario  of 
800  acres,  from  which  he  has  cut  all  the  timber  big  enough 
for  ties.  There  is  practically  no  demand  for  the  smaller 
post  timber  at  present,  and  he  asks  what  he  should  do 
with  it,  and  if  it  will  pay  him  to  hold  it.  The  land  seems 
to  be  well  stocked  with  young  trees  of  various  ages,  some 
of  which  have  been  somewhat  broken  down  in  getting 
out  the  larger  tie  timber. 

Answer:  Probably  the  best  treatment  would  be  to  let 
it  alone.  If  the  land  is  quite  wet,  there  is  very  little  chance 
of  fire  doing  much  damage  to  it.  If,  however,  it  is  liable 
to  be  dried  out  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  take  some  pre- 
caution to  protect  it  from  fire,  if  it  can  be  done  without 
too  much  expense. 

The  Tamarack  grows  very  rapidly,  and  there  is  perhaps 
no  tree  that  will  pay  better  than  this,  providing  the  taxes 
are  not  too  high.  While  there  may  be  no  demand  at 
present  for  the  smaller  stuff  for  fence-posts,  yet  within 
a  few  years  such  a  demand  is  inevitable,  as  the  more 
accessible  Tamarack  is  now  being  rapidly  sought  after 
for  such  purposes,  and  is  being  shipped  in  large  quantities 
to  the  prairie  farms.  Such  a  Tamarack  swamp,  if  carefully 
looked  after,  is  capable  of  continuing  itself  indefinitely 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  197 

and  producing  a  fairly  good  annual  revenue.  The  ad- 
visability of  perpetuating  such  a  swamp  in  Tamarack 
would  depend  largely  on  the  demand  for  hay  land,  for 
which  purposes  such  land  is  generally  well  adapted. 

3.  A  has  500  acres  of  dry  sandy  land.      The  soil  blows 
badly,  and  is  too  light  for  grain.     Clover  does  very  well 
on  this  land  when  protected  with  snow  in  winter,  but  is 
liable  to  kill  out  in  open  winters.    The  subsoil  is  clay. 

Answer  Such  land  should  never  have  been  cleared 
for  agricultural  purposes,  and  the  sooner  it  can  be  got 
into  tree-growth  again  the  better  for  the  soil.  The  land 
should  be  seeded  down  with  rye  or  other  cro;  ,  or  possibly 
•with  :lover,  until  something  of  a  sod  is  formed.  In  this 
sod.  Jack  Pine  might  be  planted,  or  it  is  very  probable 
that  ,Tack  Pine  would  come  well  from  seed  sown  in  furrows 
made  .  the  sod.  After  the  Jack  Pine  is  well  established 
about  500  Norway  or  White  Pine  per  acre  could  be  planted 
to  advantage.  This  should  receive  only  a  moderate  crowd- 
ing by  the  Jack  Pine,  and  should  be  protected  from  too 
much  crowding  until  it  can  take  care  of  itself.  This 
number  of  trees  would  be  enough  to  make  a  wrell-stocked 
acre  at  maturity.  Since  the  land  has  a  heavy  subsoil, 
the  chances  are  that  there  would  be  a  good  tree-growth, 
as  trees  are  more  influenced  by  subsoil  than  by  the  sur- 
face. If  such  land  is  very  accessible,  it  would  probably 
pay  better  to  grow  green  crops  on  the  soil,  and  by  careful 
rotation  use  it  for  agricultural  purposes,  for  which  it  may 
be  fairly  well  adapted  if  carefully  managed. 

4.  B  has  600  acres  of  Jack  Pine,  four  to  twelve  inches 
in  diameter.     The  soil  is  typical  of  Jack  Pine  land,  being 
very  sandy  and  unfit  for  agriculture.      What  is  the  best 
treatment  of  it? 

Answer:  Such  land  is  only  fit  for  timber  growth,  and 
Jack  Pine  is  probably  the  most  profitable  tree  that  can  be 
grown  upon  it  if  it  can  be  sold  as  fuel.  The  aim  should 


198  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

be  to  keep  out  fires,  and  to  cut  the  trees  on  the  selection 
plan,  removing  the  larger  ones  when  they  attain  a  diameter 
of  ten  inches.  It  may,  however,  be  best  to  cut  clean  on 
certain  parts  at  each  cutting,  but  the  cuttings  in  such 
cases  should  not  be  so  large  but  wha  the  trees  near  by 
will  seed  the  land.  This  tree  has  wonderful  regenerative 
power,  and  soon  covers  the  soil  with  a  new  growth.  It 
is  rather  impatient  of  shade,  and  the  young  seedlings  do 
not  do  well  under  the  old  trees.  It  often  happens  that 
the  cones  on  Jack  Pines  remain  upon  the  trees  unopened 
for  a  long  time,  and  often  fire  sweeps  over  the  land  which 
scorches  them,  causing  them  to  open  and  shed  their  seeds. 
As  fire  is  to  be  avoided  on  such  land,  in  order  to  protect 
the  young  growth,  it  may  be  best  to  gather  the  cones,  and 
after  roasting  them  slightly  so  that  the  scales  open,  scatter 
the  cones  broadcast  over  the  cut-over  portions.  If  timber 
is  wanted,  it  would  be  worth  while  to  try  to  secure  a  stand 
of  Norway  Pine  seedlings. 

5.  A  has  a  dry,  sandy  prairie,  the  soil  of  which  blows 
badly  when  it  is  broken  up.  The  trees  blow  out,  and  it  is 
of  very  little  value  for  agricultural  purposes.  Can  it  be 
used  for  forestry?  The  subsoil  is  fairly  good,  and  there 
is  standing  water  at  a  depth  of  about  ten  feet. 

Answer:  Under  such  conditions  trees  should  do  well 
after  they  have  once  become  established.  The  difficulty 
is  in  getting  the  land  stocked.  By  seeding  the  land  down 
to  clover,  with  oats,  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  the  oats 
would  come  up  quickly  and  prevent  he  blowing  out  of 
the  soil  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  clover  would  come 
along  and  probably  make  a  good  showing  the  next  year. 
After  the  oats  and  clover  have  started,  about  one-half 
the  land  can  be  planted  in  strips  not  more  than  sixteen 
feet  wide  and  twenty-four  feet  apart.  If  these  strips  are 
planted  with  almost  any  of  our  hardy  trees,  they  should 
do  well.  For  this  purpose  the  White  Willow  would  be 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  199 

•very  desirable,  but  seedlings  of  Box-elder,  Green  Ash,  or 
Norway  Pine  should  also  do  well.  The  strips  of  land  in 
oats  and  clover  will  afford  sufficient  protection  to  the 
planted  strips  to  protect  them  from  wind  injury.  After 
these  strips  are  established  and  two  or  three  years  old 
the  intervening  spaces  may  be  broken  up  and  planted 
without  danger  of  any  further  wind  injury. 

6.  A  has  a  piece  of  burned-over  timber  land  on  which 
there  are  scarcely  any  seed-bearing  trees  of  value;  the 
valuable  Pines  have  all  been  destroyed  by  successive 
burnings.  Most  of  the  land  is  perhaps  two  miles  from 
any  seed-producing  White  Pine,  which  was  the  most  prof- 
itable tree  on  this  land,  and  is  undoubtedly  now  the  most 
profitable  tree  that  this  soil  can  produce.  He  would  like 
to  have  it  restocked  with  White  Pine.  How  should  he 
go  to  work  to  do  it? 

Answer:  Since  the  seed-bearing  trees  are  so  far  distant 
from  the  land,  there  is  no  use  depending  upon  them  for 
restocking  the  soil  with  their  seedlings,  and  the  Poplar, 
Birch,  and  Bird  Cherry  will  undoubtedly  soon  reign  su- 
preme here,  if  they  do  not  already.  The  best  treatment 
is  probably  to  gather  White  Pine  seedlings  that  are  under 
one  foot  in  height  from  the  near-by  forest,  if  they  can  be 
obtained  easily,  and  set  them  out,  about  twenty  feet  apart 
each  way,  amongst  the  brush  now  found  on  the  land, 
taking  care  to  make  a  little  clearing,  as  it  were,  where 
each  tree  is  planted.  The  tendency  will  be  for  the  worth- 
less trees  now  growing  on  the  land  to  smother  out  the 
Pines  before  they  get  started,  and  it  will  be  necessary 
each  summer  for  several  years  to  go  over  the  land  and  cut 
away  those  trees  that  are  crowding  the  young  Pines  too 
severely.  After  these  young  Pines  have  become  established 
it  is  probable  that  they  will  be  able  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves in  competition  with  the  inferior  species,  and  then 
the  crowding  which  they  receive  from  the  latter  will  be 


200  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

a  good  thing  for  them,  as  it  will  cause  them  to  take 
on  an  upright  growth.  Plantings  of  this  kind  will  prob- 
ably cost  somewhere  about  five  dollars  per  acre,  and  if 
the  work  is  carefully  done  in  the  spring,  just  before  the 
growth  of  young  pine  starts,  there  should  be  scarce  any 
failures.  In  setting  out  the  seedlings  it  is  important  that 
they  be  kept  in  water  or  in  damp  moss  from  the  time 
they  are  pulled  out  until  they  are  put  into  the  soil  again. 
They  must  never  be  allowed  to  even  appear  dry. 

7.  B  has  land  in  Northern  Michigan  covered  with  a 
mixed  growth  of  Pine  and  Poplar.     The  Poplar  is  about 
twelve  inches  thick  and  overtops  the  Pine,  which  varies 
from  four  to  eight  inches  in  diameter  and  from  twenty  to 
forty  feet  high.     What  treatment  would  be  best  to  secure 
an  even  stand  of  White  Pine? 

Answer:  While  the  Poplar  is  hardly  marketable  at 
present,  yet  it  should  be  removed  even  if  the  material 
taken  out  hardly  pays  for  the  expense  of  so  doing.  This 
should  be  done  in  order  to  give  the  Pine  a  chance  to  shoot 
upward.  After  the  Poplar  is  removed  the  Pine  will 
probably  stand  for  several  years  without  serious  crowding, 
when  it  should  be  thinned  to  obtain  best  results. 

8.  A  has  2,000  acres  of  burned-over  land  in  Wisconsin. 
This  has  quite  a  number  of  crooked  and  branching  seed- 
ing trees,  probably  sufficient  to  seed  the  land,  but  the 
soil  is  so  covered  with  raspberries,  grass,  and  Poplar  that 
the  Pine  has  very  little  chance  to  grow. 

Answer:  The  best  way  for  giving  a  chance  for  the  pine 
seed  to  grow  is  to  drag  the  land  in  good  seed  years  as  well 
as  can  be  with  a  drag  made  of  oak  branches  or  logs.  This 
will  tear  up  a  good  deal  of  grass  or  bushes  and  make  a  loose 
surface  soil  in  which  the  Pines  can  take  root ;  but  the  next 
year  the  weeds  will  again  start,  and  will  destroy  the  Pine 
unless  they  are  held  in  check  in  some  way.  This  is  prob- 
ably best  done  by  going  over  the  land  in  June  and  July. 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  201 

and  cutting  off  some  of  the  weeds  where  the  Pines  have 
seeded  thickest.  This  practice  should  be  followed  at 
least  two  years,  after  which  but  little  attention  of  this 
sort  will  be  needed,  as  the  Pines  will  probably  be  able 
to  take  care  of  themselves  from  then  on.  If  the  land  can 
be  used  for  sheep  pasture  for  one  or  two  years,  most  of 
the  weeds  and  bushes  will  be  destroyed,  and  the  land 
will  be  left  in  improved  shape  for  the  treatment  outlined 
in  dragging  the  land  to  get  it  into  good  shape  for  a  seed- 
bed. In  fact,  without  any  further  treatment  the  Pine 
will  probably  come  in  unless  the  land  is  very  heavily 
pastured. 

9.  A  has  2,000  acres   of  land  in  Northern  Minnesota 
without  any  seeding  trees.     How  can  he  secure  a  stand 
of  Pine  upon  the  land? 

Answer:  In  such  a  case  the  best  way  is  probably  to 
set  out  Pine  seedlings,  pulled  from  the  woods,  setting  them 
about  twenty  feet  apart  each  way.  This  will  require  about 
400  plants  per  acre.  If  the  work  is  done  early  in  the 
spring  there  should  be  no  great  trouble  about  securing 
a  good  stand.  These  trees  will  be  crowded  by  weeds  on 
the  land,  which  may  help  them  to  take  an  upright  growth, 
but  they  should  be  watched,  and  the  weeds  kept  in  check, 
if  they  are  liable  to  overcome  them.  After  a  few  years, 
the  Pine  will  be  improved  by  the  crowding  of  Poplar  and 
Hazel  brush,  which  is  generally  found  upon  such  soil. 

10.  A  has  a  half   section   of  moderately  good    land, 
covered  with  an  even-growth  of  White  and  Norway  Pine. 
He  would  like  to  maintain  a  stand  of  Pine  on  this  tract — 
not  that  he  thinks  it  especially  profitable,  but  that  it 
would  prove  an  interesting  experiment. 

Answer:  Even-aged  Pine  is  very  difficult  of  renewal 
without  clean  cutting,  and  it  is  quite  out  of  the  question 
to  handle  such  tracts  to  advantage  on  the  selection  system. 
There  is  practically  no  such  thing  as  even-aged  Pine  over 


202  PRINCIPLES.  OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

large  areas  in  this  State.  It  is  probable  that  this  land 
could  be  best  renewed  by  the  group  or  strip  method.  The 
land  should  be  burned  over  clean  after  cutting,  care  being 
taken  to  protect  any  good  groups  of  seedlings  that  may 
occur.  A  stand  of  young  seedlings  should  be  secured 
on  each  piece  of  land  cut  over  before  further  cutting  is 
done.  If  grass  or  brush  is  coming  in  too  fast,  it  will  prob- 
ably be  a  good  plan  to  go  over  the  land  with  a  log-drag 
in  August  of  the  best  good  seeding  year  after  cutting,  so 
as  to  loosen  the  soil,  that  the  seed  may  have  a  good  chance 
to  start.  Grass  and  weeds  often  prevent  the  growth  of 
Pine  seed,  or  even  kill  out  the  young  seedlings  after  they 
are  started. 

11.  A  wrould  like  to  have  a  good  shelter-belt  about  the 
buildings  on  his  prairie  farm,  in  Central  Minnesota,  and 
would  like  if  it  could  be  made  to  furnish  fence  posts  and 
fuel.    He  could  use  ten  acres  for  this  purpose. 

Answer:  He  will  probably  come  nearest  to  accomplish- 
ing this  if  he  makes  a  solid  planting  of  White  Willow,  as 
recommended  on  page  165. 

12.  C  has  a  farm  on  rolling   prairie.     It  is  all  under 
cultivation  or  used  for  pasture.     He  feels  the  necessity 
of  having  a  home  supply  of  fence  posts  and  light  fuel. 
Thinks  of  putting  his  wood  lot  on  the  rich  bottom  land. 
The  soil  is  a  sandy  drift,  some  ridges  being  more  sandy 
than  others,  and  in  a  few  places  are  bare  from  washing. 

Answer:  Since  the  bottom  land  resists  drought  better 
than  the  high  land,  it  would  be  better  to  keep  it  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  and  to  place  the  trees  on  the  ridges, 
where  the  soil  is  too  bare  to  yield  a  return  from  agricul- 
ture. He  could  probably  plant  White  Willow  in  these 
locations  to  good  advantage,  and  get  what  he  needs  in 
fence  posts  and  a  considerable  amount  of  summer  fuel. 
It  is  probable  that  on  such  land  there  would  be  a  yield 
of  about  three  cords  per  acre  of  fuel  wood  per  year,  much 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  203 

of  which  material  could  be  used  for  posts.  These  trees 
should  be  cultivated  until  they  cover  the  land  well.  They 
should  begin  to  yield  some  fuel  within  six  years  from 
the  time  cuttings  are  planted,  if  they  are  set  two  feet 
apart  in  rows  eight  feet  apart. 

13.  A  farmer  living  on  the  open  prairie  in  Northwestern 
Iowa  wants  a  windbreak  and  wood  lot;  more  particularly 
desires  a  windbreak  for  buildings  and  a  shelter  for  stock. 
Docs  not  think  of  raising  firewood  or  his  own  fence  posts. 
Can  a  windbreak  be  worked  to  advantage  as  a  wood  lot 
in  such  a  case? 

Answer:  Under  such  conditions  the  windbreak  should 
be  made  somewhat  wider  than  recommended  on  page 
57  so  as  to  include  as  much  area  as  to  give  the  wood, 
desired.  In  cutting  under  such  conditions,  it  would  be 
desirable  to  cut  not  more  than  one-half  of  any  portion 
of  the  windbreak  at  one  time,  so '  that'  fts  Value  as. a  wind- 
break would  not  be  impaired  at  any  time.\ Working  in 
such  a  way  would  require  a  "rotation"period  of  about  ten 

*         C*»'   *l*&*lt*4f  (V"- T    •'     '  "*    * 

years.  It  would  probably  bo  bost'.jtp  plant  this  largely 
with  White  Willow;  but. if  the  soil,  is  hoavy  or  somewhat 
inclined.. to  be  moist,  Jt.^WuT^'^e^. good*. plan 'to  put  m 
some  Soft  Maple  and  Box-older."'  '.'  »/V/.' 

14.  A   has   five    acre-    i;i    Catalpa'J.in    Kastern    Kansas 
which   were   planted  'seven   years,  ago,  ^4X-4  fe»£  apart, 
to  see  what  could  be  done^in^growing  them,  for.'  telephone .. 
poles.     He  finds  that  they^are  so, very  crooked  and^branch- 
ing  that  they  will  be  worthless  for  this  purpose,  and  asks" 
what  is  the  best  treatment. 

Answer:  Catalpa  -will  seldom  grow  straight  enough 
for  telephone  poles  u;h'en  managed  .  in  this  way.  The 
best  treatment  for  this  'tree  is.  to* allow  Jt "to  grow  natu- 
rally until  five  years  old,  and  then  cut  the  whole  stand  off 
at  the  surface  of  tho  ground  in  winter  or  early  spring,  and 
allow  but  one  sprout  to  grow  from  each  stump.  The 


204  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

growth  in  this  way  will  be  very  vigorous  and  straight. 
In  this  particular  case  it  would  probably  be  best  even  now 
to  cut  them  off  in  this  way. 

15.  A  has  six  hundred   acres  of  mountainous  land  in 
Eastern   New   York    covered  principally  with    a   mixed 
growth  of  Birch,  Chestnut-oak,  Red  Oak,  Poplar,  Hem- 
lock, and  a  few  Hard  Maple.     He  wishes  to  make  it  into  a 
sagar  orchard,  for  which  he  thinks  it  especially  adapted, 
and  wishes  to  know  the  best  method  of  procedure. 

Answer:  The  best  method  will  be  to  secure  a  stock 
of  seedling  Maples.  These  may  be  bought  outright  or 
grown  in  a  small  nursery  from  seed.  When  these  are 
secured,  probably  the  quickest  results  will  be  obtained  by 
removing  the  entire  tree  growth  from  the  land  and  plant- 
ing out  thrifty  Maple  seedlings  eight  feet  apart  each 
way  among  the  stumps,  and  rigidly  excluding  all  cattle  and 
fires.  If,  however,  quick  results  are  not  so  much  desired 
as  economy,  the  same  end  may  be  accomplished  by  gradu- 
ally thinning  out  the  timber  now  on  the  land  and  plant- 
ing strong  seedling  Maples  wherever  there  is  light  enough 
for  them  to  grow;  but  after  planting  them,  they  should 
receive  some  little  attention  by  "  cutting  back  "  any  trees 
that  may  crowd  them.  Advantage  should  also  be  taken 
of  the  Maple  trees  now  on  the  land,  and  sufficient  thin- 
ning done  to  give  them  a  chance  to  reproduce  themselves. 
It  is  very  likely  that  there  are,  in  places,  some  seedling 
Maples  that  can  be  spared  for  transplanting  elsewhere. 

1 6.  A  has  a  piece    of  stony  land  in  Western  Massa- 
chusetts that  seems  to  be  about  run  out.      It  was  for- 
merly used  for  farming.     He  asks  if  it  is  desirable  to  plant 
it  to  Chestnut,  for  which  purpose  he  thinks  it  adapted. 

Answer:  It  is  probable  that,  all  things  considered,  Chest- 
nut would  prove  the  most  profitable  tree  that  could  be 
grown  on  this  land,  since  it  is  easily  started,  grows  vigor- 
ously), and  at  fifteen  years  of  age  will  probably  furnish 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  205 

trunks  big  enough  for  post  timber  and  give  good  crops 
of  nuts,  for  which  there  is  an  increasing  demand.  This 
tree  is  one  of  the  quickest  to  renew  itself  from  the  stump, 
and  may  be  successfully  managed  as  a  coppice.  The 
best  way  of  starting  will  probably  be  to  thoroughly  plough 
the  land  and  get  it  into  as  nice  condition  as  for  a  crop  of 
corn.  As  early  in  the  spring  as  the  land  can  be  worked, 
make  furrows  with  a  plough,  seven  feet  apart,  and  sow  the 
nuts — putting  them  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  furrow 
and  cover  two  inches.  Later  sow  corn  or  plant  potatoes 
between  the  rows,  and  keep  the  rows  thoroughly  culti- 
vated all  summer.  Cultivation  should  be  given  each  year 
thereafter  until  the  trees  shade  the  ground.  If  the  seeds 
have  come  well,  the  trees  must  be  thinned  out  so  as  to 
prevent  too  much  crowding  from  time  to  time. 

It  is  important  in  storing  the  nuts  over  winter  that 
they  be  mixed  with  plenty  of  sand  or  fine  loam,  as  they 
require  very  careful  handling  to  prevent  their  spoiling. 

17.  What  kinds  of  trees  are  best  adapted  to  use  for 
live  fence  posts?  Should  the  wires  be  nailed  directly  to 
the  tree,  or  on  blocks  of  wood  which  are  fastened  to  the 
tree? 

Answer:  Probably  the  best  tree  for  a  live  fence  post 
is  one  of  the  Willows  or  other  hardy  tree.  Where  the 
White  Willow  is  used  for  this  purpose,  there  is  no  special 
objection  to  nailing  the  wire  directly  to  the  tree,  except 
that  the  tree  will  soon  grow  over  the  wire,  and  it  cannot 
then  be  removed.  If  it  is  thought  that  the  wire  might 
be  removed  within  a  few  years,  it  wrould  be  much  the  better 
plan  to  nail  it  on  to  blocks  of  wood  which  are  nailed  to  the 
tree.  Willow  trees  which  are  used  in  this  way  as  live  fence 
posts  may  be  cut  off  about  a  foot  above  the  top  wire  and 
allowed  to  reproduce  themselves.  Such  trees,  if  properly 
managed,  will  often  produce  a  large  amount  of  firewood, 
as  well  as  afford  good  fence  posts. 


206  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

18.  We  have  thirty  acres  of  rather  wet  land  which  we 
do  not  expect  to  use  for  many  years  except  as  pasture. 
Would  it  pay  to  grow  some  White  Willows  on  a  portion 
of  it,  and  would  they  interfere  with  its  value  as  pasture? 

Answer:  If  the  land  is  not  heavily  pastured,  it  might 
be  a  good  plan  to  grow  a  few  groups  of  willow  on  it,  as 
they  will  furnish  some  protection  to  the  stock,  and  do 
not  interfere  materially  with  the  pasturage  value  of  the 
land.  Scattered  trees  might  also  be  grown,  as  they  would 
not  seriously  interfere  with  the  growth  of  grass  under  them 
where  the  land  is  moist;  but  it  would  not  be  desirable  to 
encourage  a  very  thick  growth  on  the  land,  since  it  is  much 
more  valuable  for  pasturage  than  it  would  probably  be  for 
growing  wood. 

19.  B  has  come  into  possession  of    fifty  acres  of  bluff 
land  along  the  Mississippi  River,  in  Southern  Minnesota. 
The  land  is  of  good  quality,  but  too  much  broken  for 
agriculture,  and  when  used  as  pasture  it  washes  badly. 
The  southern  slopes  are  nearly  bare  of  trees,  but  the 
other  slopes   are  well   covered  with  White   Oak,   Hard 
Maple,  Basswood,  and  Elm,  with  some  Hackberry,  Wild 
Black  Cherry,  Black  Walnut,  and  Butternut.    It  has  been 
pastured  for  twenty  years,  and  consequently  there  are 
no  young  trees  coming  on.     He  desires  to  preserve  it  as 
a  wood  lot,  since  it  has  become  of  little  value  for  pasture. 

Answer:  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  keep  out  the  cattle, 
as  they  destroy  all  the  young  seedlings  that  start,  and 
prevent  any  natural  regeneration.  In  good  seed  years 
it  might  pay  to  loosen  the  soil,  where  it  could  be  done 
easily,  in  portions  that  are  not  especially  liable  to  erosion, 
so  as  to  give  the  seeds  that  fall  a  good  chance  to  grow. 
It  would  also  be  well  to  gather  Black  Walnuts  and  Acorns, 
and  plant  them  in  especially  favorable  locations.  Im- 
provement cuttings  should  also  be  made  where  needed. 

20.  A  has   five  acres  of  overflow  lands  along  the  Mis- 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  207 

sissippi  River.  This  is  about  four  feet  above  the  low  water 
mark.  It  is,  however,  so  liable  to  freshets  in  the  spring 
that  it  would  not  be  safe  to  use  it  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, and  it  is  not  desirable  for  pasture  or  meadow.  It 
is  now  covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  White  Maple  and 
Cottonwood,  and  some  White  and  Red  Elm.  What  is 
the  best  way  of  managing  it? 

Answer:  It  would  seem  quite  probable  that  the  White 
Maple  will  become  the  most  valuable  wood  of  any  now  on 
the  land,  and  it  should  be  encouraged  by  cutting  out  the 
Cottonwood  wherever  it  crowds,  and  also  the  White  and 
Red  Elm.  The  aim  should  be  to  have  a  good  stand  of 
White  Maple,  as  it  seems  probable  that  this  will  produce 
by  far  the  most  profit.  This  tree  makes  a  very  rapid 
growth  on  good  soil,  and  the  wood  is  used  for  a  variety 
of  purposes.  If  the  Maples  do  not  thickly  cover  the 
ground,  there  may  be  some  chance  for  good  pasturage 
under  the  trees ;  but  under  the  best  conditions  there  would 
lie  no  opportunity  for  pasturage.  This  land  would  pos- 
sibly yield  about  500  feet  board  measure  per  acre  per  year 
if  well  stocked.  Such  land  will  probably  be  used  for 
meadow  when  the  country  is  better  settled,  but  this  is 
perhaps  no  objection  to  using  it  for  growing  maple  for 
the  next  twenty  years. 

21.  A  has  a  piece  of  gravelly  land.  It  was  originally 
covered  with  a  growth  of  Bur.  White.  Red,  and  Scarlet 
Oak,  but  was  cut  over  about  thirty  years  ago,  and  at  pres- 
ent has  a  rather  thin  stand  of  stunted  trees,  many  of  which 
are  sprouts  from  Bur  Oaks.  It  is  burned  over  every 
year.  The  land  is  of  very  little  value  for  agricultural 
purposes. 

Answer:  On  such  land  the  increase  is  very  little,  and 
there  will  be  no  profit  in  holding  it  for  tree  growth  if  it  is 
taxed  at  a  high  rate.  If,  however,  the  rate  of  taxation 
is  low,  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  trees  will  yield  a  fairly 


208  PRINCIPLES    OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

good  return.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  owner  to  keep 
out  fires,  and  so  encourage  the  growth  of  underbrush 
and  leaf  mould,  as  this  protects  from  drying  out  in  sum- 
mer, which  is  important  on  such  land.  The  large  trees 
that  are  decaying  had  better  be  cut  out,  and  the  younger 
growth  favored  by  occasional  thinnings,  where  too  much 
crowded. 

22.  A  has  a  meadow  which    is  subject  to  overflow  in 
the  spring  of  the  year.     The  stream  which  runs  through 
it  is  liable  to  sudden  rises,  and  has  made  many  channels 
for  itself,  and  is  continually  making  new  channels.     The 
land  affords  fairly  good  pasturage,  but  the  cutting  of  new 
channels  by  the  river  is  a  source  of  great  annoyance  and 
loss.     Is  there  any  way  that  this  can  be  prevented  by 
planting  trees? 

Answer:  Such  streams  may  be  permanently  straight- 
ened out  by  planting  Willows  across  the  cuts  made,  so  as 
to  confine  the  waters  to  a  straight  course.  By  this  treat- 
ment a  stream  soon  clears  out  a  deeper  main  channel 
for  itself,  and  the  old  high  water  channels  gradually  fill 
up  with  the  sediment  from  the  water  which  sets  back  into 
them  from  the  river  at  times  of  freshet.  The  banks  of 
the  stream  should  also  be  protected  from  washing  by 
planting  Willows  on  them.  For  this  purpose  Willow 
cuttings  of  large  size  should  preferably  be  used.  They 
should  be  not  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter  and  six 
feet  long,  and  be  put  at  least  three  feet  in  the  ground 
where  exposed  to  erosion. 

23.  A  has  forty  acres  near  Minneapolis,  covered  mostly 
with  a  heavy  stand  of  Sugar  Maple,  twenty-five  years 
old,  and  two  or  three  acres  of  Tamarack,  Elm,  Basswood, 
and   Oak.     What   treatment  would   be   more   profitable 
than  to  clear  up  for  pasture  or  other  purposes? 

Answer:  Such  land  as  this  is  probably  much  more 
valuable  for  agricultural  purposes  than  for  forestry,  un- 


FOREST    PROBLEMS.  209 

less  it  is  stony  or  on  steep  hillsides,  for  the  tree  growth 
indicates  a  strong,  valuable  soil,  and  its  being  located 
near  a  large  city  should  enhance  its  value  for  dairying 
or  similar  purposes. 

24.  Some   neglected    lowlands   have   become   partially 
covered  with  Cottonwoods  and  Willows,  some  of  which 
are  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.     These  trees  are  in  irreg- 
ular patches,   covering  perhaps  two-thirds  of  the  tract.  ' 
The  lowest  places  are  quite  wet  and  boggy.     What  in- 
come might  be  derived  from  a  careful  management  of 
the  growing  trees? 

Answer-  Very  little  profit  can  come  from  it  in  its  pres- 
ent condition,  except  as  it  .may  be  useful  for  pasturage. 
If,  on  further  consideration,  it  is  decided  that  it  will  be 
more  valuable  for  forestry  purposes  than  for  pasturage, 
it  would  probably  be  best  to  encourage  a  growth  of  White 
Maple,  the  seeds  of  which  could  be  sown  in  furrows  or 
in  patches,  in  June.  The  Cottonwood  should  be  kept 
out  as  much  as  possible,  as,  since  it  is  well  adapted  to  this 
class  of  soil,  it  is  liable  to  drive  out  everything  else,  and 
there  is  very  little  profit  from  the  growing  of  it. 

25.  B  has  forty  acres  of  land  covered  with  Maple,  White 
Oak,  Birch,  Hackberry,  and  Elm.     He  cuts  his  fuel  from 
it,-  and  makes  sugar  from  the  Maple  each  year,  and  finds 
it  fairly  profitable.     There  are,  however,  no  young  trees 
coming  on,  the  ground  being  entirely  bare,  and  it  looks 
as  though  in  the  course  of  time  the  old  trees  would  ripen 
up,  and  there  would  be  nothing  to  take  their  places.     The 
land  is  so  rough  that  it  would  not  be  profitable  for  agri- 
culture nor  especially  desirable  for  pasturage. 

Answer:  The  reason  why  there  is  no  young  growth 
coming  on  is  probably  because  the  land  is  closely  pas- 
tured, since  the  foliage  of  the  Maple,  Elm,  Birch,  and 
Oak  is  readily  eaten  by  stock.  The  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  keep  out  the  cattle,  so  that  the  young  seedlings  may 


210  PRINCIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

have  a  chance  to  become  established.  If  the  leaf  canopy 
is  rather  thin,  so  that  the  light  has  encouraged  the  growth 
of  grass  under  the  trees,  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  break 
up  the  soil  just  before  the  seed  falls,  in  good  years.  Pos- 
sibly furrows  could  be  made  through  the  woodland  with 
a  plough;  but  if  too  rough  for  this,  then  it  can  be  broken 
up  by  the  dragging  of  several  logs  tied  together  over  the 
land.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  to  keep  out  everything 
but  the  Sugar  Maples,  since  these  will  undoubtedly  be 
the  most  profitable,  both  for  sugar  and  for  fuel.  As 
these  seedlings  come  on  they  should  be  encouraged  to  cover 
the  land,  by  letting  in  a  little  light  occasionally,  if  neces- 
sary. This  may  be  done  by  removing  some  of  the  old 
trees  that  are  past  their  prime.  After  the  young  trees 
are  seven  or  eight  feet  high,  no  harm  would  come  from 
the  pasturing  of  stock  among  them  for  a  few  years,  un- 
less the  land  was  so  heavily  pastured  that  the  treading 
of  the  stock  about  the  roots  was  injurious.  If  treated 
iii  this  way  there  should  be  no  trouble  about  securing  a 
good  stand  of  young  Maples  to  come  on  and  take  the  place 
of  those  which  are  maturing. 

PROBLEMS  BY  DR.  C.  A.  SCHENCK. 

The  following  five  problems,  numbered  26  to  30,  are 
by  Dr.  C.  A.  Schenck,  the  head  of  the  Biltmore  Forest 
School  and  an  eminent  authority  on  forestry  mathe- 
matics: 

26.  A  LONGLEAF  PINE  PROBLEM. 

Premises:  Mr.  S.,  of  Eastern  Florida,  owns  a  Pine  forest 
of  all  ages,  so  that  seedlings,  saplings,  poles,  and  trees 
are  equally  mixed,  and  estimates  that  the  annual  growth 
is  250  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre.  The  tract  is  100,000 
acres,  and  he  thus  cuts  25,000,000  feet,  board  measure, 
annually  with  the  view  of  not  decreasing  the  growing 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  211 

stock.  The  expense  for  taxes  and  the  cost  of  protection 
from  fires,  etc.,  is  5  cents  per  acre  per  annum;  the  value 
of  the  stumpage  is  $1  per  thousand  feet,  board  measure. 
Mr.  S.  thinks  that  the  quality  of  the  forest  will  be  im- 
proved gradually,  and  expects  an  increase  in  productive- 
ness of  1  per  cent,  annually.  He  figures,  besides,  on  rising 
stumpage  prices,  the  rise  keeping  step  with  the  increase 
in  population  (1^  per  cent.).  He  has  a  chance  to  invest 
money  at  5  per  cent,  in  an  equally  safe  manner  and  wants 
to  sell  the  forest. 

Question:  Below  what  price  per  acre  is  it  not  advisable 
for  Mr.  S.  to  sell? 

Points:  Mr.  S.  must  figure  at  5  per  cent,  interest,  as 
the  equally  safe  investment  promises  him  5  per  cent, 
as  well. 

2.  If  the  productiveness  of  the  forest  increases  by  1  per 
cent,  per  annum,  and  the  stumpage  price  at  H  per  cent, 
per  annum,  the  receipts  will  grow  at  the  rate  of  1\  per  cent. 
per  annum.     In   discounting   these   receipts   backwards, 
we  have  to  figure  at  5  per  cent.— 2-}  per  cent.  =  2^  per 
cent. 

3.  The  present  value  of  all  annual  receipts  is 

25,000 


0.050-0.025* 

4.  The  present  value  of  all  expenses  (taxes  and  pro- 

..     ,  .    100,000X0.05 
tection)  is  -  -^ . 

25,000  100,000  +  0.05 

0050=0026 005~      =X- 

Result:  $900,000  for  the  whole  forest,  or  $9  per  acre. 


212  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


27.   A  YELLOW  POPLAR  PROBLEM. 

Premises:  Pisgah  forest  contains  40,000  acres,  stocked 
with  60,000,000  feet,  board  measure,  yellow  Poplar  of 
superior  quality,  worth  now  $3.50  per  thousand  feet, 
board  measure.  The  owner  expects  that  the  prices  of 
Yellow  Poplar  stumpage  will  double  within  the  next  15 
years  (increase  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum),  and  that  then 
small  logs  and  defective  logs  will  have  a  value  as  well, 
so  that  70,000,000  feet,  board  measure,  will  be  available 
in  the  year  1915. 

The  taxes  and  the  general  expenses  take  6  cents  per 
acre  per  annum. 

The  value  of  the  soil,  after  the  timber  is  cut,  can  be 
assumed  to  be  $2  per  acre. 

The  owner  figures  at  6  per  cent,  interest. 

Question:  What  is  the  profit  from  the  investment,  if 
any,  at  the  end  of  the  next  fifteen  years,  aside  from  the 
interest  of  6  per  cent.? 

Points:  1.  The  present  value  of  the  investment  is 
$60,000X3.50  for  the  trees  and  $40,000X2.00  for  the  soil. 

2.  The  value  of  the  forest  in  1915  is  $70,000X7.00  for 
the  trees  and  $40,000X2.00  for  the  soil. 

3.  The  running  expenses  from  1900  to  1915  are,  per 
annum,  $0.06X40,000.     They  accumulate,   up   to    1915, 
to  the  sum 

0.06X40,000(1.0615-1) 
0.06 

Equation:  z  =  70,OOOX7.00  +  40,OOOX2.00-1.0615 
(60,000X3.50+40.000X2.00)  <»»X«,000(1.06»-1) 

Result:  The  owner  will  find  himself  $182,000  short. 
He  will  lack  a  good  deal  of  making  6  per  cent,  on  his 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  213 

investment.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  will  make  about 
4  per  cent,  on  the  investment,  and  no  more,  unless  the 
stumpage  prices  do  more  than  double  within  the  next 
fifteen  veare. 


28.   AM    ADIRONDACK   PROBLEM. 

Premises:  A  tract  of  land  in  the  Adirondacks,  acquired 
in  the  year  1876  at  $5  per  acre,  was  cut  over  in  1888, 
yielding  then  1,800  feet  per  acre,  board  measure,  White 
Pine,  worth  $3  per  thousand  feet,  board  measure,  and 
2,600  feet,  board  measure,  Spruce,  worth  $1  per  thousand 
feet,  board  measure. 

In  the  year  1896  there  were  cut,  per  acre,  another  6,550 
feet,  board  measure,  of  Spruce,  worth  $1.50  per  thousand 
feet,  board  measure. 

The  taxes  on  the  forest  were  5  cents  per  acre  per  annum, 
the  expense  of  administration  and  protection  2  cents  per 
acre  per  annum.  Figure  at  6  per  cent. 

Question:  At  what  cost  were  those  last  6,550  feet,  board 
measure,  produced? 

Points:  1.  The  price  paid  for  the  land,  in  1876,  was 
$5  per  acre,  which  accnied,  at  compound  interest,  and 
up  to  the  year  1896,  to  $5.00X1.0620. 

2.  The   running    expenses   during  the   period   1876  to 
1896  were  7  cents   per  acre  per  annum,  and  sum  up  to 
the  amount  of 

0.07(1.0620-1) 
0.06 

3.  The   yield  made  in   1888  was   $3.00X1. 8+ Sl.OOX 
2.6  =  18.00.     Discounted  forward  to  the  year  of  calcula- 
tion, 1896,  this  yield  (which  is  of  course  to  be  subtracted 
from  the  various  outlavs")  amounts  to  $8.00X1. 068. 


214  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

Equation:    x  =5Xl.06'0+0'0y(Q^'°~1)-8Xl.06'. 

Result:  The  cost  of  producing  those  6,550  feet  was 
$5.80.  As  the  value  of  the  6,550  feet  is  $9.82,  the  owner 
has  gained,  aside  from  making  6  per  cent,  interest  on  the 
investment  and  aside  from  having  the  value  of  the  culled 
forest  for  an  additional  asset,  about  $4  per  acre. 

29.    A    SPRUCE    PROBLEM. 

Premises:  A  lumberman  owns  20,000  acres  of  Spruce 
land,  from  which  he  has  just  cut  6,000  feet,  board  meas- 
ure, per  acre,  12  inches  and  over  in  diameter  at  the  stump, 
worth  $1.50  per  thousand.  After  another  20  years  he  will 
be  able  to  obtain  3,320  feet  per  acre,  cutting  again,  down 
to  a  12-inch  diameter,  and  we  may  expect  that  after 
40  years  the  same  yield  will  be  obtained,  and  so  on. 

The  land,  when  cleared,  is  said  to  have  some  value  for 
pasture  purposes.  The  taxes  are  4  cents;  the  expense 
for  administration,  protection,  etc.,  8  cents  per  acre  per 
annum.  Figure  at  6  per  cent. 

Question:  What  is  the  forest  worth  at  the  present 
moment? 

Points:  1.  After  20,  40,  60  (and  so  on)  years,  a  yield 
of  3,320  feet,  board  measure,  worth  $4.98  per  thousand  feet, 
can  be  obtained. 

2.  The  necessary  expenses  are  4  cents  plus  8  cents  per 
acre  per  annum. 

3.  The  value  of  a  forest,  like  the  value  of  a  house  or 
a  farm  or  a  business,  is  equal  to  the  present  value  of  all 
returns,  minus  all  expenses,  expected  from  it. 

4  Q8          012 
Eqmtu,n:    3  =  ^^-— 2.22-2.00. 

Result:  The  forest,  after  lumbering,  is  worth  22  cents 
per  acre.  If  the  owner  can  sell  it,  for  farming  purposes, 


FOREST   PROBLEMS.  215 

at  over  22  cents  per  acre,  he  should  certainly  do  it,  pro- 
vided that  he  can  make,  by  reinvesting  the  proceeds  of 
the  sale,  6  per  cent,  in  an  equally  safe  manner. 

If  the  taxes,  or  the  expense  necessary  for  administration, 
protection,  etc.,  are  2  cents  higher  per  acre  per  annum 
than  is  supposed  in  the  premises,  the  owner  had  better 
give  up  the  land  after  the  first  cutting,  unless  he  can  sell 
it,  for  in  that  case  its  forestry  value  is  negative,  the  neces- 
sary expenses  devouring  all  possible  profits. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  good  chance  for  the 
stumpage  prices  to  rise,  say  at  the  average  rate  of  2  per 
cent,  per  annum,  the  cut-over  forest  has  a  value  of 

4.98         0.12 
04^T-006 

The  study  of  future  prices  of  stumpage  is  of  the  very 
greatest  importance  for  the  wood  owner. 

30.   A    WHITE  PINE   PROBLEM. 

Premises:  A  Minnesota  lumberman  owns  10,000  acres 
of  White  Pine  forest,  containing  6,000  feet,  board  measure, 
per  acre,  worth  S3  per  thousand.  The  agricultural  value 
of  the  land  is  $5  per  acre,  when  the  timber  is  removed. 
Under  conservative  lumbering,  an  annual  production  of 
300  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre  can  be  expected.  Taxes, 
8  cents  per  acre  per  annum,  and  protection  from  fire,  under 
forestry,  12  cents  per  acre  per  annum.  Extra  logging  ex- 
penses, under  forestry,  $4  per  acre,  at  the  first  cutting. 
Lumber  prices  expected  to  double  in  35  years  ( =  annual 
rise  of  2  per  cent.).  Proper  grovving  stock  for  forestry 
2,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre. 

Qtiestion:  What  interest  on  the  investment  will  forestiy 
yield? 

Points:  1.  The  investment,  to  begin  with,  is  6,000  feet, 


216  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

board  measure,  worth  $3  =  $18  per  acre  plus  value  of  soil, 
worth  $5  per  acre. 

2.  The  yield  under  forestry  is  4,000  feet,  worth  $3  =  $12 
per  acre  to  be  derived  at  once,  and  300  feet,  worth  90  cents, 
to  be  derived  annually  thereafter,  being  the  annual  produc- 
tion of  the  2,000  feet  left  standing,  per  acre.    The  future 
yields  are  to  be  discounted  at  (x  per  cent.  —2  per  cent.). 

3.  The  annual  expenses,  under  forestry,  are  20  cents. 
The  extraordinary  expenses  are  $4  per  acre,  spent  at  the 
first  cutting. 

QO  20 

Equation: 


Result:  About  7  per  cent. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  USES  OF  WOOD. 

Wood  Serves  so  Many  Purposes  and  enters  so  largely 
into  human  activities  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  most 
useful  of  all  natural  products,  excepting  only  food.  Iron 
is  looked  upon  as -the  most  useful  of  metals.  Wood  is 
not  a  metal,  but  in  its  usefulness  it  may  be  placed  above 
iron,  which  it  is  replacing  in  many  cases  where  the  latter 
formerly  was  exclusively  used.  Iron  and  wood  have  dis- 
placed and  replaced  each  other  in  public  favor  time  and  time 
again,  so  that  their  respective  claims  to  supremacy  have  not 
yet  been  decided.  For  instance,  in  the  manufacture  of 
bicycles,  wood  rims  were  first  used,  and  then  gave  way  to 
iron  and  steel  on  account  of  their  lighter  appearance  and 
strength.  Now,  with  better  methods  of  construction,  wood 
is  again  in  use,  and  giving  general  satisfaction.  However, 
each  has  its  place,  and  the  two  often  work  to  better  advan- 
tage in  combination.  Experiments  have  shown  that  in 
tensile  strength  hickory  exceeds  iron  and  steel  of  the  same 
length  and  weight,  and  hickory  and  long-leaf  pine  resist 
greater  endwise  compression  than  wrought  iron.  The  elas- 
ticity of  wood  enables  it  to  yield  to  greater  stress  than 
metals  without  receiving  permanent  distortion,  and  in  like 
manner  it  will  resist  high  temperatures  without  warping, 
holding  its  shape  until  consumed  or  broken  down  by  mere 
weight. 

In  Comparison  with  Iron,  Wood  is  lighter,  easier  to 
work  and  handle,  at  present  cheaper,  and  in  many  cases 

217 


218  PRINCIPLES  OF  AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 

stronger  and  more  durable.  These  facts,  coupled  with 
its  abundance  and  ready  adaptability,  have  brought  it 
into  such  extensive  use  that  the  future  depletion  of  the 
supply  has  become  a  matter  of  some  concern  to  thoughtful 
people.  Even  now,  in  many  parts,  the  local  supply  has 
already  been  exhausted  (due  much  to  extravagance  and 
carelessness),  and  the  inhabitants  are  dependent  upon 
other  regions  to  furnish  their  wood  material,  at  an  increased 
cost.  Treeless  regions  formerly  uninhabited  are  now  teem- 
ing with  thriving,  industrious  populations,  whose  standard 
of  living  demands  the  consumption  of  large  quantities  of 
wood,  drawn  from  limited  forest  areas.  The  present  sup- 
ply is  rapidly  disappearing. 

To  give  the  reader  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  manifold 
utility  of  wood,  and  to  impress  upon  him  the  importance  of 
maintaining  a  permanent  source  of  supply  of  this  essential 
material,  we  may  group  its  uses  into  general  classes,  as  an 
enumeration  in  detail  would  be  too  bulky  for  this  volume, 
and,  by  sheer  weight,  fail  of  its  purpose.  In  a  general 
way,  wood  is  thought  of  as  useful  for  lumber  and  fuel.  As 
firewood  it  heats  our  houses,  cooks  our  meals,  makes  steam 
for  driving  the  engines  which  run  our  flour  mills,  factories, 
light  and  power  plants,  street  cars,  laundries,  etc.  Dif- 
ferent woods  have  their  own  fuel  value,  as  indicated  in 
another  chapter;  the  supply  of  different  kinds  varies  in 
localities;  the  price  varies;  so  that  we  cannot  say  that 
one  kind  should  be  used  more  than  another.  Poor  ma- 
terial must  often  be  taken  where  no  other  is  available. 
In  Minnesota  there  is  in  the  wooded  regions  a  considerable 
variety  of  fuel  woods.  The  most  common  are,  for  the 
hard  woods  (or.  more  properly  speaking,  broad- leaved 
trees),  Maple,  Oak,  Elm,  Ash,  Aspen,  Birch,  Cottonwood, 
and  Basswood;  and  of  the  conifers  (or  narrow- leaved 
trees),  Pine,  Tamarack,  Spruce,  and  Balsam  Fir. 

As  lumber,  we  may  convert  wood  into  a  yet  more  exten- 


THE  USES  OF  WOOD.  219 

sive  variety  of  channels  of  usefulness,  included  under 
the  heads  of  general  building,  construction,  and  wood 
working. 

In  Carpentry,  rough  material  is  used  in  framework, 
as  sills,  studding,  plates,  joists,  rafters;  in  sheathing, 
roofing,  shingles,  laths;  while  finished  lumber  is  put  into 
siding,  floors,  doors,  window  frames,  and  sash,  blinds, 
stairways,  stationary  furniture,  and  fixtures,  columns, 
mouldings,  turned  and  carved  work  (solid  and  veneer). 
All  kinds  of  wood  are  used  for  this  work,  according  to 
the  purpose  and  the  taste  of  the  builder,  but  Pine  in 
larger  quantities  than  any  other,  on  account  of  its  cheap- 
ness, ease  of  working,  and  general  utility. 

For  Railways,  wharves,  piers,  bridges,  piling,  etc., 
heavy  material  is  used;  that  is,  large  pieces.  For  rail- 
road ties,  bridges,  pavements,  and  culverts  all  kinds  of 
wood  may  be  used,  but  those  best  adapted  to  withstand 
the  usage  of  the  position  are  most  desired. 

In  Shipbuilding,  ribs,  rib  frames,  keels,  and  outside 
planking,  take  Oak  or  other  hard  wood,  with  trenails  of 
Locust;  while  for  outside  planking  Pine  is  used,  and  inte- 
riors and  decks  are  finished  to  taste  and  usage  with  any  wood. 

In  Joinery,  which  includes  furniture  making,  cabinet 
and  box  work,  packing  cases,  and  crates,  all  kinds  of  wood 
are  utilized. 

In  the  Making  of  Cars,  wagons,  and  carriages  the  frame- 
work is  usually  of  Oak  and  Ash,  with  covering  of  Pine 
and  fancy  woods,  while  the  running  gear  takes  Hickory, 
Oak,  Elm,  Ash,  Locust — butt  cuts  being  especially  valu- 
able. 

In  Cooperage,  barrels,  casks,  tubs,  kegs,  pails,  churns, 
and  tanks  (staves,  heads,  and  hoops)  are  made  of  every 
description  of  wood,  but  for  vessels  designed  to  hold 
the  finer  grades  of  wet  goods,  as  liquors  and  wines,  White 
Oak  only  is  desired. 


220  PRINCIPLES  OF  AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 

In  the  Manufacture  of  Farm  and  Household  Machinery 
and  implements,  mostly  hard  woods  of  tough,  durable 
qualities,  as  Oak,  Ash,  Hickory,  and  Elm,  are  in  demand. 
For  woodenware  (turned,  carved/  and  split-ware  goods), 
again,  all  kinds  of  wood  find  a  place.  For  baskets  and 
wickerware,  Willows  and  other  pliable  growths  are  used, 
while  sounding  boards  of  pianos  and  organs  are  almost 
always  of  spruce.  In  machine  building,  cogs,  gears,  and 
pulleys  are  often  made  of  hard  wood,  while  frames  of  a 
stationary  nature  are  of  Pine. 

Timber  for  Mining  Purposes  is  in  great  demand  in 
all  mining  regions,  and  enormous  quantities  of  it  are 
required,  so  that  the  mines  are  among  the  largest  con- 
sumers. In  this  state  some  of  the  deep  mines  use  as 
much  as  eighty  miles  of  log  timber  per  year,  besides  lag- 
ging. In  mining,  usually,  the  wood  of  the  district  is 
used  for  props,  lagging,  etc.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
fencing — the  most  convenient  wood  is  taken. 

Telegraph  Poles  require  sticks  that  are  free  from  large 
knots,  and  which  are  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
Cedar  is  much  used  for  this  purpose.  Flagstaffs  and 
masts  call  for  long,  slender,  yet  resistant,  material. 

In  Lumbering,  a  considerable  quantity  of  timber  is  used 
in  roads,  skidways,  booms,  piling,  etc.,  and  a  much  larger 
quantity  of  the  skidway  and  roadway  material  than  is 
necessary  is  left  to  rot  on  the  ground  after  a  season's 
work  is  ended. 

Wood  Pulp  and  Distillation  Products.  One  of  the 
most  important  industries  connected  with  forests  is  their 
use  for  paper  pulp.  For  this  purpose  all  kinds  of  wood 
may  be  used,  but,  on  account  of  its  superior  quality  and 
the  ease  of  working,  little  is  used  in  this  country  at  present 
besides  Spruce.  Many  experiments  have  been  made  with 
Poplar,  and  it  also  is  used  to  some  extent,  but  Spruce  is 
very  much  preferred  on  account  of  its  better  fibre.  Paper 


THE   USES   OF   WOOD.  221 

pulp  is  made  in  two  ways:  First,  chemical;  second, 
mechanical.  Chemical  pulp  is  made  by  treating  the  tissues 
of  the  wood  with  chemicals  which  dissolve  out  the  lignin 
substances  until  only  the  cellulose  or  pulp  is  left.  There 
are  several  processes  used,  one  of  which  is  by  boiling  the 
wood  in  Glauber  salts  for  seven  hours,  after  which  the 
pulp  is  washed  clean  and  bleached  with  chloride  of  lime 
until  quite  white.  This  process  is  more  expensive  than 
the  sulphite  process,  in  which  sulphurous  acid  is  used, 
but  is  said  to  give  a  better  product.  All  kinds  of  wood 
may  be  converted  into  chemical  pulp,  but  very  dark 
colored  and  very  resinous  kinds  are  usually  avoided. 
Ordinary  paper  pulp  is  made  by  grinding  Spruce  wood 
on  large  stones,  against  which  it  is  pressed  by  hydraulic 
power.  For  the  manufacture  of  very  tough  paper  and 
of  leather  board  it  is  customary  to  boil  the  wood  a  long 
time  before  it  is  ground.  Wood  that  is  cooked  a  long 
time  before  grinding  makes  a  dark  colored  but  very  tough 
product.  In  the  manufacture  of  ordinary  printing  paper, 
the  wood  is  put  at  once  upon  the  stone,  and  the  pulp 
from  it  is  rolled  into  paper.  It  is  customary  to  mix  a 
certain  per  cent,  of  chemically  prepared  paper  pulp  with 
ordinary  wood  pulp  in  order  to  improve  its  strength. 
Wood  pulp  is  not  only  manufactured  into  paper,  but 
boards,  buckets,  car  wheels,  and  a  thousand  other  things, 
are  made  from  it.  Its  use  is  almost  unlimited. 

By  the  Destructive  Distillation  of  Wood  (all  kinds 
of  wood,  all  sizes — logs,  refuse,  sawdust)  we  obtain  char- 
coal, vinegar,  alcohol,  creosote,  gas,  tar;  pyroligneous, 
oxalic,  acetic,  and  other  acids;  acetone,  paraffin,  naph- 
thalin;  lampblack  and  other  products.  From  the  bark 
of  Oak,  Hemlock,  Chestnut,  and  other  trees  the  tannic 
acid  used  in  tanning  leather  is  obtained. 

As  we  have  digressed  slightly  by  including  bark  under 
the  term  "wood/'  we  may  go  further,  and  take  in  also 


222  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

the  sap  from  which  is  obtained  turpentine,  resin,  gums, 
and  rubber,  sugar,  liquors,  medicines;  the  pith,  which 
gives  us  food  and  fibre  for  clothing  and  other  purposes; 
the  fruit  and  leaves,  which  are  also  used  for  food,  medic- 
inal and  chemical  extracts. 

Wood  is  Made  Up  of  Cells  which  vary  in  form  and  in 
arrangement  in  different  species.  The  cells  are  arranged 
in  the  form  of  irregular,  concentric  cones,  so  that  a  cross 
section  of  a  tree  shows  a  series  of  concentric  rings.  For 
ordinary  purposes,  however,  a  log  may  be  considered  as 
being  made  up  of  a  series  of  concentric  cylinders,  each 
cylinder  representing  one  year's  growth.  If  each  ring 
is  examined  closely,  it  will  be  noticed  that  it  is  made  up 
of  an  inner,  softer,  lighter-colored  portion,  and  an  outer 
portion  that  is  firmer  and  darker  colored.  The  inner 
portion  was  formed  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  when 
growth  was  rapid;  this  portion  is  termed  the  spring  wood. 
The  outer  portion,  where  the  cells  are  packed  firmly  to- 
gether, grew  in  the  summer,  when  the  growth  was  slow, 
and  this  is  termed  the  summer  wood.  Since  the  latter 
portion  is  very  heavy  and  firm,  it  to  a  large  extent 
determines  the  weight  and  strength  of  the  wood. 

Wood  a  Structure.  On  account  of  the  peculiar  arrange- 
ment in  its  structure,  wood  should  not  be  regarded  as  a 
homogeneous  mass,  but  rather  as  a  mechanical  structure, 
the  arrangements  of  the  units  of  which  in  each  case  should 
be  carefully  considered  in  estimating  its  strength  and 
its  value  for  various  purposes. 

Methods  of  Sawing.  In  sawing  wood  the  relation  of 
the  saw  cut  to  the  annual  rings  is  an  important  matter, 
and  its  reference  in  relation  to  them  has  given  rise  to  the 
names  cross-cut,  tangential,  and  quarter-sawing. 

Cross-cut  Sawing  simply  refers  to  cutting  across  the 
grain.  This  method  of  sawing  is  seldom  adopted  other 
than  for  purposes  of  division,  but  occasionally  it  is  used 


THE   USES   OF   WOOD. 


223 


for  making  thin  veneers,  which  arc  used  in  finishing 
panels  and  the  like. 

"  Through  and  Through,"  bastard  or  regular  sawing, 
refers  to  the  ordinary  way  of  sawing  lumber,  in  which 
most  of  the  cuts  are  tangential  to  the  annual  rings. 

Quarter-Sawing  is  sawing  that  is  done  perpendicularly 
to  the  annual  rings  of  the  wood.  Wood  thus  sawed 
presents  an  evenness  of  grain  not  to  be  found  in  wood 
tan  genti  ally  sawed.  When  cut  nearly  or  quite  on  the 
radius  the  beautiful  silver  grain  of  some  woods  is  thus 
shown  to  the  best  advantage. 

Quarter-sawed  lumber  presents  a  more  durable  surface, 
and  warps  and  shrinks  less  than  that  tangentially  sawed. 

c 


FIG.  68.  FIG.  69. 

FIG.  68. — Common  method  of  quarter-sawing  Yellow  Pine  for 
flooring. 

FIG.  69. — Showing  method  of  quarter-sawing  to  bring  out  the  figure- 
of  the  wood  to  best  advantage.  The  log  is  first  quartered, 
1,  2,  3,  and  4,  and  each  quarter  is  sawed  as  indicated  by  lines  in  4. 

If  these  points  alone  are  the  chief  considerations,  any 
wood  is  considered  quarter-sawed  that  presents  the  edge 
of  its  annual  rings  to  its  surface  at  an  angle  of  not  less 
than  forty-five  degrees.  This  is  done  in  various  ways. 

Figure  Gl  illustrates  one  method  of  quarter-sawing  such 
woods  as  Yellow  Pine,  which  are  so  sawed  solely  to  increase 
their  strength  and  wearing  qualities.  Slabs  are  taken  off 


224  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

the  four  sides,  then  a  cant  A  B  is  removed  by  cutting 
to  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  heart.  This  cant  is 
thrown  back  on  the  deck.  Then  the  mill  goes  on  sawing 
right  through  the  heart  C,  taking  off  four  to  six  boards, 
as  the  case  may  be,  which  are  run  through  the  edger  and 
have  the  heart  cut  out.  This  leaves  two  cants  of  the  same 
thickness.  The  one  on  the  deck  A  B  is  put  back  on  top 
of  the  one  D  E  on  the  carriage  and  both  are  cut  up  to- 
gether. Practically  all  of  the  stock  thus  made,  except 
the  boards  taken  off  in  slabbing,  is  edged  grained,  and  if 
oak  about  half  of  it  would  show  a  fair  figure. 

If  Quarter-Sawing  is  Done  for  the  Purpose  of  Bring- 
ing Out  the  Silver  Grain  of  the  wood,  as  is  necessary  in 
the  case  of  White  Oak  for  best  effects,  then  the  saw  cut 
should  always  be  made  towards  the  heart  and  on  the  line 
of  the  silver  rays.  This  is  a  much  more  wasteful  process 
than  the  former  method,  and  requires  very  different 
management.  The  more  nearly  perfect  the  quarter-sawing 
is  done  the  more  waste  there  is,  and  so  it  is  the  object  of 
practical  men  to  avoid  the  extremes  of  perfect  quarter-saw- 
ing (at  great  expense  in  labor  and  material)  and  through- 
and-through  sawing  (which  is  cheapest  and  most  econom- 
ical of  material).  In  ordinary  quarter-sawing  of  this 
kind,  there  is  a  waste  of  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  in  ma- 
terial as  compared  with  through-and-through  sawing. 
This  waste  is  found  in  the  feather-edged  pieces  and  bevelled 
edges  which  have  to  be  cut  off,  and  in  the  very  narrow 
strips  of  no  value.  Small  logs  waste  much  more  than  large 
logs  in  quarter-sawing.  Most  sawyers  place  the  mini- 
mum-sized log  that  should  be  used  for  quarter-sawing  at 
twenty-six  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  very  important  to 
have  quarter-sawed  lumber  wide,  as  narrow  stock  is  of 
comparatively  little  value.  In  ordinary  sawing,  there 
are  always  a  few  cuts  made  parallel  to  the  silver  rays 
which  have  the  desired  quarter-sawed  figure. 


THE   USES    OF   WOOD.  225 

In  practice,  several  methods  of  sawing  are  used  to  bring 
out  the  silver  grain.  The  most  common  is  to  quarter 
the  logs,  and  then  saw  each  quarter,  as  shown  by  the 
lines  in  Figure  69. 

FUEL   VALUE   OF   WOODS.* 

"  The  Relative  Fuel  Values  here  given  are  obtained 
by  deducting  the  percentage  of  ash  from  the  specific 
gravity,  and  are  based  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  real 
value  of  the  combustible  material  in  all  woods  is  the 
same. 

"It  appears  from  Mr.  Sharpies'  experiments  that  resin- 
ous woods  give  upwards  of  twelve  per  cent,  more  heat 
from  equal  weights  burned  than  non-resinous  woods; 
the  heat  produced  by  burning  a  kilogram  of  dry  non- 
resinous  wood  being  about  4,000  units,  while  the  heat 
produced  by  burning  a  kilogram  of  dry  resinous  wood 
is  about  4,500  units,  a  unit  being  the  quantity  of  heat 
required  to  raise  one  kilogram  of  water  one  degree  centi- 
grade. 

"Count  Rumford  first  propounded  the  theory  that  the 
value  of  equal  weights  of  wood  for  fuel  was  the  same, 
without  reference  to  specific  distinctions;  that  is,  that  a 
pound  of  wood,  whatever  the  variety,  would  always 
produce  the  same  amount  of  heat.  Marcus  Bull,  experi- 
menting in  1826  upon  the  fuel  value  of  different  woods, 
found  a  variation  of  only  eleven  per  cent,  between  the 
different  species  tested.  Rumford's  theory  must  be  re- 
garded as  nearly  correct,  if  woods  are  separated  into 
resinous  and  non-resinous  classes.  The  specific  gravity 
gives  a  direct  means  of  comparing  heat  values  of  equal 
volumes  of  wood  of  different  resinous  and  non-resinous 

*  This  article  on  the  fuel  value  of  woods  is  taken  from  the  "Report 
of  th-  Tenth  Census,"  by  Prof.  C.  S.  Sargent. 


226  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

species.  In  burning  wood,  however,  various  circum- 
stances affect  its  value;  few  fire  places  are  constructed  to 
fully  utilize  the  fuel  value  of  resinous  woods,  and  carbon 
escapes  unconsumed  in  the  form  of  smoke.  Pine,  there- 
fore, which  although  capable  of  yielding  more  heat  * 
than  Oak  or  Hickory,  may  in  practice  yield  considerably 
less,  the  Pine  losing  both  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  the  form 
of  smoke,  while  Hickory  or  Oak,  burning  with  a  smoke- 
less flame,  is  practically  entirely  consumed.  The  ash  in  a 
wood,  being  non-combustible,  influences  its  fuel  value  in 
proportion  to  its  amount.  The  state  of  dryness  of  wood 
also  has  much  influence  upon  its  fuel  value,  though  to  a 
less  degree  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  water  in 
green  wood  prevents  its  rapid  combustion,  evaporation 
reducing  the  temperature  below  the  point  of  ignition. 
Green  wood  may  often  contain  as  much  as  fifty  per  cent, 
of  water,  and  this  water  must  evaporate  during  combus- 
tion; but  as  half  a  kilogram  of  ordinary  wood  will  give 
2,000  units  of  heat,  while  half  a  kilogram  of  water  requires 
only  268.5  units  to  evaporate  it,  1,731.5  units  remain 
available  for  generating  heat  in  wood  containing  even  a 
maximum  amount  of  water. 

"A  factor  in  the  general  value  of  wood  as  fuel  is  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  seasoned;  Beech,  for  example, 
a  very  dense  wood  of  high  fuel  value  when  dried,  is  gener- 
ally considered  of  little  value  as  fuel,  on  account  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  decays  when  cut  and  the  conse- 
quent loss  of  carbon  by  decomposition." 

*  From  a  given  weight. 


THE   USES   OF   WOOD. 


22? 


TABLE    OF   FUEL  VALUES    OF    OUR    DIFFERENT 
WOODS. 


Botanical  Names. 


Common  Names. 


ill 


Abies  amakilis 

Abies  bahamea 

Abies  concolor 

Abies  grandis 

A  bws  magnified 

Abies  nobilif. 

Acer  macrophyttum 

Acer  negundo 

Acer  rubrum 

Acer  saccharinum 

Acer  snccharum 

A  esculus  glabra 

A  esculus  octandra 

Betula  lento, 

Betula  lutea 

Betula  nigra 

Betuln  papyri  fern.  .  . . 
Betula  populifolia.  .  . 
Carpinus  caroliniann. 

Castanea  drntata 

Castanea  pumtta. .  .  . 


Amabilis  Fir 

Balsam  Fir 

White  Fir 

Lowland  Fir 

Red  Fir 

Noble  Fir 

Oregon  Maple 

Box-elder 

Red  Maple 

Silver  Maple 

Sugar  Maple 

3hio  Buckeye 

Yellow  Buckeye 

Sweet  Birch 

Yellow  Birch 

.  .  River  Birch 

..Paper  Birch 

White  Birch 

Blue  Beech 

Chestnut.  .  . 


.  .  jChinquapin 

Castanopsis  chrysophylla.  . .  .  jGoldenleaf  Chinqur  pin. . 

Catalpa  catalpa Catalpa 

Catalpa  speciosa Hardy  catalpa 

Celtis  occidentalis ;Hackberry 

Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana.  .(Port  Orford  Cedar 

Chamaecyparis  thyoides (White  Cedar 

Diospyros  virginiana '  Persimmon 

Fagus  atropuntcea jBeech 

Fraxinus  americana j  White  Ash 

Fraxinus  lanceolata Green  Ash 

Fraxinus  nigra I  Black  Ash 

Fraxinus  oregona [Oregon  Ash 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica.  .  .  .  !Red  Ash 

Fraxinus  quadrangiitata.  .  .    jBlue  Ash 

Gleditsia  triacanthos Honey  Locust 

Gymnocladus  dioicus Coffee  Tree 

Hicoria  alba |Mocker  Nut 

Hicoria  glabra JFig  Nut 

Hicoria  laciniosa Shellbark  Hickory 

Hicoria  minima !Bitternut 

Hicoria  ovata Shagbark  Hickory 

Hicoria  pecan. Pecan 


|  Lbs. 

42.1826  35 
38.0223  SO 
36. 07!  22. 67 
35.08|22.09 
46.8729.30 
45.4628.12 
48.8330.59 
42.82|26.97 
61.65:38.5 
52.5232.84 
68.7543.08 
45.0328.31 
26.  (-4 

75.9747.47 
15.3440.81 
57.42,35.91 
59.4037.11 
57.43,35.90 
72.2645.41 
44.95-28.07 
58.8036.69 
55.5534  74 
44. 57;  27. 88 
41.4825.96 
2.08'45.41 
46.16,28.80 
53.1220.70 
'8.32,49.28 
. ,  68.4842.89 
..165.16:40.77 
70.71,43.35 
62.7239.37 
57.12(35.72 
62.35,38.96 
74.5044.77 
66.8642.00 
68.8843.21 
81.2951.21 
81.3651.?! 
80.35,50.53 
74.7447.06 
83.11:52.17 
70.9944.75 


228 


PRI  \CIPLES    OF    AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 


TABLE    OF    FUEL   VALUES    OF    OUR    DIFFERENT 
WOODS—  (Continued) . 


Botanical  Names. 

Common  Names. 

Approximate 
relative  fuel 
value. 

g,1 

& 
~i  b 

ft! 
££3 

Ilex  opaca  

American  Holly  

57.74 
40  .  60 
60.91 

49.11 
62.16 
74.00 
40.14 
58.73 
42.20 
46.76 
63.26 
58.56 
51  .  58 
63.66 
82.42 
40.38 
33.38 
45.71 

42.80 
55.56 
54.17 
60.86 
47.50 
43.42 
39.13 
74.83 
50.53 
36  .  76 
38.99 
40.83 
.9.82 
46.99 

45.60 
48.41 
51.39 
38.47 
54.27 
52.93 
56.52 

Lbs. 
36.26 
25.46 
38.11 
35.93 
30.70 
38.86 
46.16 
25.03 
36.83 
26.36 
29.23 
39.64 
36.75 
32.37 
39.59 
51.62 
25.25 
21.49 
28.57 
28.13 
26.72 
34.72 
33.86 
38.04 
29.67 
27.16 
24.50 
46  .  76 
32.44 
2"  °fi 
24.00 
25.53 
43.62 
29.45 

28.78 
28.50 
30  .  25 
32.10 
24.02 
33.91 
33.09 
35.39 

Juglans  cinereo  
Juglans  nigra  
Juniperus  Occidents,'  •  
Juniperus  virginiana  

Butternut  
Black  Walnut  

Red  Juniper 

Tamarack 

Larix  occidentalis  

Western  Larch  

Libocedrus  decurrens  

Incense  Cedar  

Liquidambar  styraciflua.  .  .  . 
Liriodendron  tulipifera  
Magnolia  acuminata  
Magnolia  foetida  
Morus  rubra  

Sweet  Gum  
Tulip  Tree  
Cucumber  Tree  
Magnolia  
Red  Mulberry 

Cotton  Gum 

Nyssa  sylvatica  

Black  Gum  

Ostrya,  virginiana  

Iron  wood  

Picea  canadensis  
Picea  engelmanni  

White  Spruce  

Engelmann  Spruce  
Black  Spruce  

Red  Spruce        

Picea  sitchensis  

Sitka  Spruce  

Bristol-cone  Pine 

Foxtail  Pine 

Pinus  echinata  

Shortleaf  Pine  

Pinus  divaricaia  
Pinus  flexilis               

Jack  Pine  

Limber  Pine  
Spruce  Pine  
Cuban  Pine        .    . 

Pinus  jeffreyi  

Jeffrey  Pine  
Suo'ar  Pine 

Pinus  monticola  
Pinus  murrayana  
Pinus  palustris               

Silver  Pine.  
Lodgepole  Pine  

Longleaf  Pine  

Pinus  ponderosa 

Bull  Pine  

Pinus       ponderosa      scopu- 

Rock  Pine  

Monterey  Pine  
Red  Pine        

Pitch  Pine  
White  Pine 

Pinus  taeda          

Loblolly  Pine  
Scrub  Pine 

Pinus  virginiana  
Platanus  occidentalis  

Sycamore  

THE   USES   OF   WOOD. 


229 


TABLE    OF    FUEL   VALUES   OF    OUR    DIFFERENT 
WOODS— (Continued) . 


Botanical  Names. 

Common  Names. 

Approximate 
relative  fuel 
value. 

Weight  of  a  cu. 
ft.  of  abso 
lutely  dry  wood 

Populus  angustifolia 

\arrow-leaf  Cottonwood 

38.81 
41.42 

38.53 
48.77 
46.11 
40.10 
37.66 
58.14 
51.53 
86.09 
74.39 
84.43 
73.91 
67.25 
69.11 
73.87 
74.06 
80.03 
83.01 
72.39 
68.82 
76.18 
74.42 
65.28 
70.10 
93.93 
72.96 
42.02 
28.67 
45.24 
63.78 
31.53 
37.90 
45.00 
42.27 
42.20 
51.61 
74.17 
64.54 
71.59 
69.77 
72.20 

Lbs. 
24  38 
22.65 

24.24 
29.71 
28  87 
25.13 
23.77 
36.28 
32.14 
53.63 
46.35 
52.93 
42.20 
42.55 
43.17 
46.17 
46.45 
50.10 
52.14 
45.14 
43.24 
47.75 
46.73 
41.25 
43  90 
59.21 
45.70 
26  22 
17  96 
28.31 
39.83 
19.72 
23.66 
28.20 
26.51 
26.42 
32.29 
46.68 
40.55 
45.15 
43.35 
45.63 

Populus  baisamifera  
(var  candicans). 

Balm-of-Gilead               .    . 

Cottonwood 

Populus  fremontii  
Populus  grandidentata  
Populus  tremuloides.    
Populus  trwhocarpa  
Prunus  serotina  
Pseudotsuga  taxifoha.  ...... 

Fremont  Cottonwood.  .  . 
Large  tooth  Aspen.  .   
Aspen       

Black  Cottonwood  

Black  Cherry    

Douglas  Spruce        

Chinquapin  Oak        

White  Oak                

Quercus  chrysolepis        
Quercus  coccinca  
Quercus  densiflora  
Quercus  digitata  
Quercus  lobata  
Quercus  macrocarpa  .  . 

Canyon  Live  Oak 

Scarlet  Oak 

Spanish  Oak  

California  White  Oak  
Bur  Oak  

Cow  Oak.           

Post  Oak               

Water  Oak 

Pin  Oak 

Quercus  platanoides  

Swamp  White  Oak 

Chestnut  Oak 

Red  Oak 

Quercus  velutina  

Yellow  Oak  

Quercus  virginiana  

Live  Oak  

Robinia  pseudacacia  

Locust   

Sequoia  sempervirens     

Redwood  

Sequoia  ivashingtoniana.  .  .  . 
Taxodium  distichum.  .  . 

Big  Tree  

Bald  Cypress  

Taxus  brerifolia 

Pacific  Yew.  

Thuja  occidentalis 

Arborvitae      

Giant  Arborvita?  
Basswood  

Tilia  heterophylla  

White  Basswood  
Hemlock                

Western  Hemlock  
Wing  Elm  
White  Elm  
Cedar  Elm             

Slippery  Elm 

Ulmus  rncemosa  

Cork  Elm  

CHAPTER  XIII. 
DURABILITY  OF  WOOD. 


Decay  in  Wood  is  due  to  the  breaking  down  of  the 
tissues  by  fungi.  In  some  cases  the  fungus  destroys  the 
woody  cells;  in  others  it 
uses  up  the  starch  found 
in  the  cells  and  merely 
leaves  a  blue  stain  (bluing 
of  lumber).  Some  kinds 
of  fungi  attack  only  con- 
ifers, others  only  hard 
woods;  some  are  confined 
to  one  species  while  others 
may  affect  several  species, 
but  probably  no  one  of 
them  attacks  all  kinds  of 
wood  Fig.  63  shows  the 
discoloration  of  wood  by  a 
The  wood 

„,  r~-j    —    —  contains  the  fungus  plant, 

punk;  d,  layer  of  living   spore  wnich    when   ready  to  pro. 

tubes;  e,  old  spore  tubes  filled  .                               -          , 

up;  /,  fluted  upper  surface  of  duce   its   spores,  sends   out 

the  fruiting  body  of  the  fungus  a    shelf-like    bodv  on   the 

which  gets  its  food  through  a  .  .         ,     ,               ".       _., 

great  number  of  fine  threads  Side    of    the    wood.      These 

(the  mycelium),  its  vegetative  shelves  contain  the  spores 

tissues   penetrating    the  wood  ,             .       .          . 

and  causing  it  to  decay.  and  may  be  found  on  many 

old  decayed  trees  or  stumps. 

Various     odors     are     produced  in  the  wood  by  some  of 

230 


FIG.  70.— "Shelf"  tungus  on  the 

stem  of   a    pine   (Hartig)      a,    shelf   funffus 
Sound  wood;  b,  resinous  wood; 
c,   partly    decaved    wood    or 


DURABILITY   OF  WOOD.  231 

these  fungi;  they  may  be  pleasant,  as  those  found  some- 
times in  the  Oak,  or  unpleasant  as  those  infesting  some 
of  the  Poplars.  By  studying  both  the  favorable  and 
the  unfavorable  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  rot- 
producing  fungi,  we  may  learn  the  best  methods  of 
increasing  the  durability  of  our  woods,  and  thus  avoid 
unnecessary  waste. 

The  soil  and  conditions  under  which  wood  is  grown 
affects  its  durability.  Coniferous  woods  with  nar- 
row, annual  rings  are  most  durable,  especially  when 
grown  on  comparatively  poor  soils,  in  dense  forests,  and 
at  high  altitudes.  On  the  contrary,  the  hard  woods  with 
wide  annual  rings  are  most  durable,  and  are  grown  on  the 
low  lands  and  in  isolated  positions.  The  wood  of  most 
broad-leafed  trees  produced  in  the  open  is  more  durable 
than  that  from  the  dense  forest. 

Sound  Mature  Trees  Yield  More  Durable  Timbei 
than  either  young  or  very  old  trees.  A  tree  is  considered 
mature  when  it  ceases  growing  vigorously,  which  condi- 
tion is  indicated  by  the  flattening  out  of  the  crown,  by 
dead  branches  in  the  crown,  and  by  changes  in  the  color 
of  the  bark.  It  is  not  indicated  by  size,  since  this  vanes 
in  the  same  species  according  to  circumstances.  A  smsd* 
tree  poorly  situated  for  growth  may  be  as  old  or  older 
than  a  larger  tree  growing  under  better  conditions. 

Intense  Coloration  of  the  Heartwood  is  a  measure  of 
durability  in  timber,  and  faintly  colored  heartwood  re- 
sembles sapwood  in  its  properties,  only  surpassing  it  in 
dry  ness.  The  tannin  or  coloring  matter  of  heartwood  ia 
antiseptic.  Where  heartwood  does  not  change  its  color 
or  is  lighter  than  the  sapwood  the  protecting  substance? 
are  generally  absent,  and  the  wooa  is  therefore  liable  tc 
decay.  This  is  plainly  shown  in  the  hollow  trunks  o* 
Willow  and  Basswood. 


232  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

Sapwood  Contains  More  Ready-Made  Food  in  forms 
acceptable  to  a  greater  number  of  kinds  of  fungi  than 
the  heartwood.  This  largely  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
sapwood  is  much  more  liable  to  decay  than  heartwood. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  Cedar  and  Pine, 
where  the  heartwood  is  protected  by  resinous  substances. 
But  when  the  sapwood  is  well  seasoned  and  heavier  than 
the  heart/wood  it  lasts  as  long.  Wood  that  has  been 
once  attacked  by  fungi  becomes  predisposed  to  further 
decay. 

The  Time  of  Cutting  Timber  affects  its  durability  only 
as  the  weather  at  the  time  of  cutting  affects  the  curing 
process.  Wood  cut  in  summer  is  generally  affected  by 
decay-producing  fungi,  rapid  fermenting  of  sap,  and  by 
bad  checking,  owing  to  very  rapid  curing  on  the  outside. 
As  the  cracks  thus  made  go  deep  into  the  wood  they  may 
increase  the  danger  from  fungi.  Where  summer-felled  wood 
is  worked  up  at  once  and  protected  by  kiln-drying,  it 
lasts  as  long  as  that  cut  at  any  other  season. 

Early  winter  is  probably  the  best  time  to  cut  timber, 
as  regards  durability,  since  it  then  seasons  slowly  at  a 
time  when  the  rot-producing  fungi  arc  not  active,  so  that 
it  can  cure  over  ori  the  outside  before  summer.  Many 
kinds  of  fungi  and  beetles  find  a  very  favorable  place  just 
under  the  bark  of  logs.  These  can  be  avoided,  the  curing 
of  the  timber  hastened,  and  its  durability  greatly  increased, 
by  removing  the  bark  soon  after  felling.  When  trees  are 
cut  in  full  leaf  it  is  advantageous  to  let  them  lie  at  full 
length  until  the  leaves  are  thoroughly  waited  (two  or 
three  weeks)  before  cutting  to  size.  With  conifers  this 
is  a  good  practice  at  any  season,  and  while  not  practical, 
yet  theoretically  all  winter-cut  trees  should  be  left  to  leaf 
out  in  the  spring  before  being  worked.  In  this  way 
most  of  the  sap  is  evaporated,  but  in  the  care  of  timber 


DURABILITY   OF   WOOD.  233 

that  is  to  go  at  once  into  the  water  these  precautions  are 
not  so  important. 

Heat  (60  Degrees  to  100  Degrees  Fahr.),  Moisture 
and  Air  in  moderate  quantities  produce  conditions  under 
which  wood  quickly  decays.  It  is  on  this  account  that 
fence  posts  rot  off  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where 
about  such  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture  are  usually 
found  during  several  months  of  the  year.  For  the  same 
reason  what  is  known  as  dry  rot  destroys  green  floor 
joists  or  other  timbers  where  they  are  tightly  enclosed, 
as  under  a  house  without  ventilation,  since  moisture  is 
always  present  in  such  places,  and  the  timber  cannot  dry 
out.  Perfectly  dry  wood  or  that  submerged  in  water  will 
last  indefinitely,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  difference  in 
different  kinds  of  wood  under  these  conditions.  Pieces 
of  pine  wood  in  good  condition  have  been  found  in  Illi- 
nois, buried  to  a  depth  of  sixty  feet,  that  must  have  been 
there  for  many  centuries.  Nearly  sound  pine  logs  are 
occasionally  found  in  the  woods  of  this  State,  where  they 
have  a  thick  moss  covering  that  has  kept  them  moist  and 
prevented  their  decay  for  hundreds  of  years.  The  remains 
of  timbers  in  the  piles  of  the  lake  dwellers  in  Switzer- 
land, which  must  have  stood  in  place  two  thousand  years, 
are  still  intact.  In  these  instances  the  wood  was  kept 
moist,  and  never  came  in  contact  with  the  air.  It  is  very 
evident,  too,  that  wood  which  is  kept  in  a  dry  place  does 
not  decay,  since  it  may  be  found  in  an  unimpaired  state 
of  preservation  in  some  of  our  very  oldest  buildings. 

In  the  following  table  is  shown  approximately  the  time 
fence  posts  will  last  in  Minnesota.  This  table  is  based  on 
practical  experience  in  that  State: 


234  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

'* 

TABLE   SHOWING    RANGE    OF  DURABILITY  OF   FENCE- 
POSTS   IN   MINNESOTA      (Air  dry  ) 

Red  Cedar 30  years 

White  Cedar  (quartered  6 -inch  face) 10-15  years 

White  Oak  (6-inch  round) 8  years 

Red  and  Black  Oak 4  years 

Tamarack  (Redwood) 9  years 

Elm 6—7  years 

Ash,  Beech,  Maple 4  years 

Black  Walnut 7-10  years 

White  Willow,  6  inches  in  diameter,  peeled  and  dried.  .  .      6-7  years 
Catalpa 20  years 

Curing  is  one  of  the  most  important  processes  in  its 
effect  on  the  durability  of  wood.  Well  cured  wood  resists 
decay  far  better  than  fresh  wood,  because  it  contains  an 
insufficient  amount  of  water  for  the  growth  of  fungi. 
Green  wood  covered  with  paint  before  it  is  dry  is  often 
destroyed  by  dry  rot,  since  this  fungus  finds  abundant 
moisture  under  the  paint,  and  the  protection  which  was 
intended  for  the  wood  really  protects  its  enemy,  the 
fungus.  Paint  and  other  wood-protecting  compounds 
are  efficient  only  when  they  are  applied  to  dry  material, 
which  they  preserve  by  protecting  them  from  moisture. 
But  fence  posts  or  other  timber  to  be  used  in  moist  places, 
if  well  cured,  will,  even  if  not  protected,  last  murh  longer 
than  fresh  cut  timber.  The  amount  of  moisture  in  wood, 
then,  is  the  most  important  factor  in  influencing  its  dura- 
bility. 

Timber  is  Best  Cured  Under  Cover,  where  it  is  pro- 
tected from  the  sun  and  the  full  force  of  the  wind,  but  has  a 
good  circulation  of  air.  If  piled  in  the  open,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  shade  it.  When  piling  green  or  wet  timber, 
place  lath  or  other  strips  of  wrood  of  uniform  size  under 
each  log,  post  or  tie.  In  piling  sawed  lumber  the  lath 
should  be  placed  at  the  ends,  as  in  this  position  they  in  a 
measure  prevent  checking  on  the  ends. 


DURABILITY  OF  WOOD.  235 

From  twelve  to  eighteen  months  is  generally  sufficient 
to  cure  wood  for  ordinary  use,  while  for  special  work  ten 
or  more  years  may  occasionally  be  required.  If  green 
or  wet  timber  is  closely  piled  in  warm  weather  it  is  likely 
to  rot.  The  best  method  of  curing  timber  without  resort- 
ing to  the  use  of  expensive  apparatus  is  to  work  it  up  at 
once  and  soak  it  in  water  for  from  one  to  three  weeks,  to 
remove  the  sap  from  the  outside  of  the  wood.  It  will 
then  season  more  quickly  and  be  more  durable  than 
when  dried  without  soaking.  Sometimes  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  thus  water  season  large  timbers,  as  it  is  im- 
possible to  get  the  sap  out  of  them  by  atmospheric  sea- 
soning. Large  checks  or  cracks  in  the  ends  of  logs  or 
other  timber  of  large  dimension  may  be  avoided  or  greatly 
lessened  by  painting  the  ends  with  linseed  oil  mixed  with 
ground  charcoal  or  other  material,  to  give  it  consistency. 
Covering  with  cloth  or  tarred  paper  also  lessens  checking. 

Good  Coatings  for  Wood  consist  of  oily  or  resinous 
substances  that  are  easily  applied  in  a  smooth  coat  and 
dry  readily,  yet  do  not  have  any  tendency  to  crack  or 
peel  off.  They  should  be  applied  to  the  whole  exposed 
surface. 

Coal  Tar  is  one  of  the  best  materials  for  covering  wood 
to  increase  its  durability.  It  is  best  applied  hot,  espe- 
cially if  mixed  with  oil  of  turpentine,  as  it  then  penetrates 
more  deeply.  A  mixture  of  three  parts  coal  tar  and  one 
part  unsalted  grease,  to  prevent  the  tar  from  drying  too 
quickly  so  it  may  penetrate  the  wood  better,  is  recom- 
mended. One  barrel  of  coal  tar  will  cover  from  two  to 
three  hundred  posts  if  it  is  properly  applied. 

Oil  Paints  are  next  in  value.  Boiled  linseed  oil  is  used 
with  lead,  pulverized  charcoal,  or  other  similar  material, 
to  give  it  substance.  Soaking  the  dry  wood  in  crude 
petroleum  is  also  recommended. 

Lime  Whitewash  is  a  good  preventive  of    decay  in 


236  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

wood,  and,  although  not  as  good  for  this  purpose  as  coal 
tar,  it  is  very  desirable.  As  with  all  other  preservatives 
that  are  applied  to  the  surface,  the  wood  should  be  very 
dry  before  it  is  applied,  and  the  wash  should  be  applied 
evenly  over  all  the  exposed  parts.  It  is  on  account  of 
the  lime  washing  out  of  the  mortar  that  the  shingles 
on  a  roof  just  below  the  chimney  last  longer  than  on  other 
parts  of  the  roof.  But  if  whitewash  is  to  be  applied  to- 
shingles,  it  should  be  applied  before  they  are  laid  by 
dipping. 

Charring  those  parts  of  posts  or  timbers  which  come  in 
contact  with  the  ground  is  a  good  preventive,  provided  a 
thick  layer  of  charcoal  is  formed  and  the  work  so  carefully 
done  as  not  to  cause  the  timber  to  crack,  since  deep  crack- 
ing exposes  the  interior  to  decay.  If  the  work  is  not 
carefully  done  the  timber  may  be  seriously  weakened. 

Antiseptics.  The  impregnating  of  timber  with  sul- 
phate of  copper  (blue  stone),  sulphate  of  iron  (green 
copperas),  chloride  of  zinc,  creosote,  salts  of  mercury,  or 
other  similar  material,  has  the  effect,  when  properly 
done,  of  greatly  increasing  its  durability.  Such  anti- 
septic substances  have  the  power  of  destroying  the  rot- 
producing  fungi.  The  materials  are  often  applied  to  fresh 
logs.  If  dry  timber  is  to  be  treated,  it  is  first  boiled  or 
steamed  to  open  the  cells.  A  hollow  cap  connected  with 
a  force  pump  is  placed  over  one  end,  and  the  liquid  forced 
through  the  cap  into  the  wood,  which  results  in  forcing 
out  the  sap  at  the  opposite  end  and  replacing  it  with  the 
antiseptic,  but  the  more  common  method  is  that  described 
below  as  the  treatment  given  in  impregnating  railroad 
ties  in  Europe.  All  the  antiseptics  mentioned  have  been 
used  to  some  extent  for  this  purpose,  but  for  various  rea- 
sons chloride  of  zinc  is  now  most  generally  used.  Railroad 
ties  thus  treated  last  much  longer  than  those  not  so  treated. 
Impregnation  also  to  some  extent  renders  wood  fire-proof. 


DURABILITY  OF  WOOD.  237 

Iron  Railroad  Ties.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  thought 
probable  that  iron  railroad  ties  would  come  into  general 
use  in  Europe,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  Oak  ties.  They 
have,  however,  been  found  to  give  a  very  unyielding  road 
bed,  and  are  not  generally  liked,  and  are  seldom  used 
for  more  than  a  short  distance  at  railroad  stations.  The 
disposition  now  is  to  substitute  impregnated  Beech  ties 
for  iron,  and  the  successful  impregnation  of  this  wood, 
causing  it  to  become  quite  durable,  has  had  a  large  effect  in 
doing  away  with  iron  ties. 

The  Impregnation  of  Beech  Wood  for  railway  ties  is  a 
large  industry  in  Europe.  Without  impregnation  Beech 
is  one  of  the  least  durable  of  woods,  but  by  modern  impreg- 
nation methods  it  can  be  made  to  last  at  least  fifteen  years 
in  any  soil,  and  it  is  customary  for  concerns  engaged  in 
this  business  to  warrant  the  durability  of  their  impreg- 
nated ties  for  twelve  years.  Pine  and  Oak  ties  are  not 
impregnated. 

The  process  commonly  followed  in  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many is  about  as  follows:  A  large  boiler-tank  is  provided, 
which  is  about  six  feet  in  diameter  and  forty  to  one  hundred 
feet  long.  This  is  made  with  heads  that  can  be  securely 
and  tightly  bolted  on.  It  also  has  a  small  track  for  the 
cars  which  carry  the  ties.  Before  treatment,  the  ties  are 
mortised  to  receive  the  rail  plates.  After  the  tank  is 
filled  with  cars  loaded  with  ties,  the  steam  is  turned  on 
for  one  to  three  hours,  with  a  pressure  of  about  twenty- 
five  pounds.  This  treatment  softens  the  wood  and  dis- 
solves the  sap.  The  air  is  then  pumped  out  of  the  tank, 
which  removes  the  sap  from  the  ties  and  leaves  a  vacuum. 
When  this  has  been  completed  and  the  vacuum  made,  the 
impregnating  material  is  added  under  a  pressure  of  about 
120  pounds.  This  forces  the  impregnating  material  into 
the  cells  of  the  wood.  The  preservative  material  used 
is  made  up  one-third  of  a  three  per  cent,  solution  of  chlo- 


838  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

ride  of  zinc  and  two-thirds  of  dead  oil  (creosote  oil).  Chlor- 
ride  of  zinc  was  formerly  used  alone,  but  it  was  found  that 
it  washed  out  after  a  few  years,  where  the  wood  was  laid 
in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  thus  the  wood  was  liable 
to  decay ;  but  by  the  addition  of  dead  oil,  which  is  itself  a 
good  antiseptic,  the  cells  of  the  wood  were  effectually 
sealed  over  and  water  prevented  from  entering,  and  thus  the 
chloride  of  zinc  was  protected  and  the  process  made  more 
permanent.  The  cost  of  this  treatment  in  Hessen,  Ger- 
many, is  estimated  at  about  twenty-two  cents  per  tie.  In 
this  country  Pine  ties  are  recently  reported  to  have  been 
impregnated  in  this  way  for  9  cents  per  tie. 

Among  the  other  processes  for  the  preservation  of  wood 
are  the  following: 

Kyanizing  Process.  In  this  the  ties  are  steeped  in  a 
solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate), 
in  the  proportion  of  about  one  part  bichloride  to  one  hun- 
dred parts,  by  weight,  of  water.  The  time  required 
for  this  process  is  about  one  whole  day  for  each  inch  in 
thickness.  This  material  is  an  active  poison,  and  must 
be  handled  carefully.  It  has  given  excellent  satisfaction 
in  the  preservation  of  timber  which  comes  in  contact 
with  the  soil,  but  soon  corrodes  metal  in  contact  with  it. 

Boucherie  Process.  In  this  process  the  timber  is 
impregnated  with  a  one  per  cent,  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  either  by  pressure  in  a  closed  vessel  or  by  apply- 
ing it  to  the  end  of  the  tie  or  log  and  forcing  it  through. 
This  is  an  excellent  antiseptic,  and  is  said  to  have  doubled 
the  life  of  the  Pine  ties  in  Europe. 

Creosoting.  This  process  is  very  extensively  used, 
and  has  given  excellent  satisfaction.  The  material  is 
what  is  known  as  dead  oil,  of  coal  tar,  and  is  obtained  by 
distilling  coal.  Naphthalin  is  its  principal  preserva- 
tive. A  similar  oil,  known  as  wood  creosote  oil,  is  ob- 
tained by  the  distillation  of  Pine  wood,  but  is  said  to 


DURABILITY   OF   WOOD.  239 

be  much  more  soluble  than  the  dead  oil,  and  on  this  account 
more  liable  to  wash  out  of  the  wood  when  in  contact  with 
the  soil. 

Zinc  Tannin  Process.  In  this  process  the  chloride  of 
zinc  is  protected  from  being  washed  out  of  the  ties  by 
coagulated  albumen.  The  process  is  as  follows:  The  ties 
are  impregnated  with  chloride  of  zinc  mixed  with  a  small 
percentage  of  dissolved  glue.  Thejr  are  then  subjected 
to  heavy  pressure,  after  which  the  solution  is  drawn  off 
and  a  tannin  solution  added  at  a  pressure  of  100  pounds. 
This  material  combines  with  the  glue,  and  forms  a  leath- 
ery, waterproof  substance  which  permanently  closes  the 
pores  or  outer  cells  of  the  wood,  excluding  moisture  and 
retaining  the  zinc. 

Burnettizing.  In  this  process  the  timber  is  impregnated 
with  chloride  of  zinc,  the  operation  being  similar  to  that 
of  creosoting.  It  has  a  wonderful  preservative  effect 
upon  the  timber,  the  only  objection  to  it  being  that  the 
solution  is  liable  to  be  washed  out  of  the  ties.  This  is 
overcome  in  the  modern  treatment  of  the  ties  in  Ger- 
many by  using  a  certain  per  cent,  of  dead  oil  with  it, 
as  previously  noted  in  describing  the  method  of  impreg- 
nating railroad  ties. 

Fire-proof  Wood.  It  has  been  known  for  many 
years  that  wood  could  be  made  fire  proof  by  filling  it 
with  certain  chemicals  in  much  the  same  way  that  rail- 
way ties  are  impregnated.  The  most  common  chemical 
used  for  this  purpose  was  phosphate  of  ammonia,  and  it 
is  perhaps  the  best  material  for  this  purpose  that  has 
ever  been  used,  but  it  is  so  expensive  that  the  use  of  it 
is  quite  impracticable.  The  next  best  material  that 
has  been  used  for  this  purpose  is  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
but  like  phosphate  of  ammonia  this  somewhat  injures 
the  flexibility  of  the  fibre  and  corrodes  metal,  and  in  addi- 
tion deadens  the  color  and  causes  the  wood  to  be  more 


240  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

hydroscopic.  These  chemicals,  either  alone  or  com- 
bined, have  given  some  very  good  results,  but  have  not 
been  entirely  satisfactory.  They  have  been  used  in 
fire-proofing  warships,  where  great  results  have  sometimes 
been  realized,  as,  notably,  in  the  war  between  China  and 
Japan,  where  this  treatment  is  said  to  have  given  Japan 
a  great  advantage  in  the  greatest  naval  battle  of  that 
war.  If  a  fire-proofing  process  were  discovered  that 
combined  the  merits  of  cheapness  without  injuriously 
affecting  the  qualities  of  the  wood,  it  would  be  much 
sought  after,  and  its  application  would  be  almost  endless. 
In  order  to  bo  effective  such  a  process  must  not  only  be 
cheap,  but  must  not  prevent  the  wood  from  holding  paint 
varnish  and  glue  well,  nor  injure  its  fiber,  nor  corrode 
metal  in  contact  with  it  nor  tools  used  in  working  it, 
neither  must  it  increase  its  tendency  to  absorb  moisture. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
FOREST   ECONOMICS. 

Alarm  About  Destruction  of  Forests !  For  many  years 
the  attention  of  the  people  of  this  country  has  been  drawn 
to  the  possibility  of  a  depletion  of  our  forests  and  a  timber 
famine  in  the  near  future.  But  increased  transporta- 
tion facilities  have  made  new  sources  of  timber  easily 
accessible  to  us,  which  fact,  together  with  the  use  of  in- 
ferior kinds  of  trees  for  lumber,  has  kept  the  predicted 
timber  famine  from  materializing,  until  now  our  people 
have  become  skeptical  on  this  point,  and  look  upon  these 
predictions  as  very  premature.  To  any  one  who  care- 
fully studies  the  subject,  however,  it  Will  be  very  evident 
that  our  supply  of  White  Pine,  that  most  generally  use- 
ful of  all  our  timber  trees,  is  fast  decreasing,  and  that  it 
cannot  be  very  many  years  before  this  will  be  apparent 
by  the  advance  of  prices  for  this  kind  of  timber.  Most 
of  the  land  of  good  quality  seems  destined  to  be  eventu- 
ally used  for  farming  purposes,  but  there  will  always 
remain  a  large  area  of  stony  or  very  sandy  or  mountain- 
ous land  that  will  be  unfit  for  profitable  agriculture,  and 
which  will  produce  more  revenue  when  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  timber  than  when  used  for  any  other  crop. 
There  is  also  a  large  amount  of  land  that  will  not  be  needed 
for  farming  purposes  for  many  years,  and  this  should 
grow  timber  until  needed  for  agriculture.  Besides  this, 
with  the  increased  value  of  fuel,  lumber,  and  other  forest 
products,  there  will  come  a  better  appreciation  of  the 

241 


242        PRINCIPLES  OF  AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 

importance  of  farm  wood  lots  as  a  source  of  fuel,  poles 
lumber,  etc.,  for  farm  use,  and  a  more  general  disposition 
to  save  some  land  for  this  purpose  and  to  properly  care 
for  it. 

Price  of  Fuel.  At  present,  in  part  of  the  forested  area  in 
many  of  the  Western  States,  the  forests  are  greatly  in  the 
way  of  settlers,  and  the  price  of  fuel  is  simply  the  cost  of 
gathering  it,  no  charge  whatever  being  made  for  the 
wood  itself.  This  state  of  things  exists  because  not  only 
in  the  forests  but  more  especially  in  the  great  area  of 
cut-over  timber  lands  in  those  sections  there  is  such  an 
immense  amount  of  dead  and  down  timber  that  it  is 
seriously  in  the  way  and  far  in  excess  of  the  fuel  demands 
of  the  settlers  on  those  lands  for  a  score  of  years  to  come. 
There  seems  to  be  something  incongruous  in  the  fact 
that  while  in  Minnesota,  for  instance,  one-half  of  the 
State  is  prairie,  and  sadly  in  want  of  fuel  and  other  forest 
supplies,  the  other  half  has  such  a  superabundance  of 
these  products  that  they  are  going  to  waste,  and  only  a 
small  portion  is  considered  worth  marketing. 

Value  of  Forest  Industries  of  Minnesota.  The  market- 
ing of  the  products  of  the  virgin  forest  in  this  country 
has  added  greatly  to  our  wealth  and  prosperity,  and 
under  proper  management  this  source  of  wealth  would 
continue  indefinitely.  Minnesota  furnishes  a  good  ex- 
ample of  the  conditions  in  this  industry  in  several  of 
the  Western  States.  The  value  of  the  forests  of  Minne- 
sota is  most  easily  seen  by  showing  the  number  of  men 
employed.  According  to  the  report  of  the  Bureau  of 
Labor,  there  were  employed  in  logging,  in  the  year  1899- 
1900,  15,886  men  and  8,285  horses.  The  average  time  of 
the  men  was  about  twenty  weeks.  They  were  employed 
in  329  camps,  and  cut  1,112,000,000  feet  board  measure. 
The  total  wages  was  $2,988,900,  besides  board,  or  about 
$4,180,000,  including  board. 


FOREST  ECONOMICS.  243 

In  the  wood-working  industries,  the  following  men 
were  employed  in  the  year  1900: 

Sash  and  door  manufacturers 1,186 

Sawmills,  shingle-  and  lath-mills ^ 9,179 

Planing-mills 1,707 

Rattan  and  willow  works 48 

Paper-mills 229 

Lumber-yards 276 

Wood-working  shops 830 

Furniture  and  fixtures 1,405 

Cooperage 772 

Box  manufacturing 356 

Total 15,988 

Making  a  total  in  the  wood-working  and  lumbering 
industries,  besides  carpenters  and  builders,  of  31,874 
men  employes.  The  best  authorities  agree  that  the 
normal  annual  increase  on  the  12,000,000  acres  of  forest 
area  in  Minnesota  should  be  about  2,000,000,000  feet  board 
measure,  or  a  mean  annual  increase  of  185  feet  board 
measure  per  acre.  If  this  were  true,  it  would  leave  a 
wide  margin  to  the  present  annual  timber  cut  without 
impairing  the  normal  growing  stock.  In  other  words, 
this  great  lumber  industry,  of  so  much  value  to  that 
State,  would  be  continued  indefinitely  under  normal 
conditions.  But  there  is  practically  no  timber  land  in 
that  State  under  normal  conditions,  and  there  is  little 
or  no  increase  on  the  far  greater  part  of  her  cut-over 
timber  lands.  On  this  account  the  continuance  of  the 
himber  industry  is  not  hoped  for,  by  those  engaged  in  it, 
there.  In  other  words,  they  are  working  their  timber 
resources  as  though  they  were  a  mine  which  could  never 
be  restocked. 

The  timber  lands  of  all  civilized  countries  have  passed 
through  about  the  same  wasteful  conditions  as  those 
which  now  prevail  here.  While  this  does,  not  justify 


244 


PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


the  present  deplorable  situation  here,  it  shows  us  that 
the  trouble  \ve  are  suffering  from  is  a  common  one.  that 
will  right  itself  with  increased  population  and  proper 
education.  Previous  to  1700  the  forests  of  Germany  were 
in  much  the  same  condition  as  those  here  at  present,  and  a 
square  mile  of  forest  land  could  be  bought  for  the  present 
price  of  one  of  the  oaks  planted  at  that  time.  Our  people 


FIG.  71. — Schonmunzaek  in  the  Black  Forest,  Germany,  showing 
a  combination  of  forestry,  farming,  and  manufacturing 

are  simply  uninformed  as  to  the  possibilities  of  our  forest 
land  under  proper  conditions. 

Like  any  Other  Business,  Forestry  Requires  Capital. 
This  is  partly  in  land  and  partly  in  the  growing  crops  of 
wood.  Capital  in  wood  may  often  exceed  that  in  land. 
Income  from  forests  comes  as  timber,  fuel,  bark,  and  in 
items  of  smaller  importance,  such  as  grazing,  fruit,  medic- 
inal plants,  hunting,  etc. 

Forests  Should  be  so  Managed  as  to  yield  an  annual 
increase,  as  in  this  way  the  conditions  for  most  successfuJ 


FOREST   ECONOMICS.  245 

marketing  are  best  met.  Under  such  conditions,  too,  a 
certain  amount  of  experienced  help  can  be  expected  to 
become  located  conveniently  near,  as  they  will  have 
steady  work,  while  if  the  products  are  harvested  at  irregu- 
lar intervals  new  help  must  be  engaged  at  each  harvest, 
which  is  extremely  undesirable. 

In  Considering  the  Returns  from  the  Forest  the 
following  terms  should  be  clearly  understood:  (1)  Normal 
growing  stock,  (2)  normal  income,  (3)  capital  stock,,  and 
(4)  actual  income.  These  are  defined  in  the  following 
paragraphs : 

Normal  Growing  Stock.  Since  the  annual  valuable 
increase  of  wood  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  leaf 
surface  on  trees  of  the  right  kind,  size,  and  form,  it  follows 
that  there  must  always  be  a  certain  number  of  trees  of  a 
certain  size  in  order  to  obtain  normal  annual  growth. 
This  material  represents  invested  capital,  and  the  highest 
annual  income  is  dependent  upon  having  a  normal  grow- 
ing stock  upon  the  land.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  is  an 
ideal  thing,  and  is  seldom,  if  ever,  exactly  attained.  The 
amount  of  normal  growing  stock  which  there  will  be 
upon  one  acre  will  depend  upon  the  species,  its  age  and 
conditions,  and  must  be  determined  in  the  working  plan 
of  the  forest  tract  after  a  careful  study  of  its  conditions. 

The  Normal  Income  is  the  crop  of  wood  that  a  given 
tract  of  forest  will  produce  per  year  under  normal  condi- 
tions. This  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  species  and 
conditions.  It  may  be  harvested  by  selecting  only  the 
large  trees  from  all  over  the  area,  or  by  cutting  clean 
over  a  certain  portion  of  it,  as  shown  in  chapter  X.  It 
is  very  plain  that,  if  the  increase  per  year  is  a  given  amount, 
it  may  be  harvested  by  either  method  without  infringing 
on  the  normal  growing  stock  of  the  whole  area.  For 
some  conditions  the  selection  method  is  preferred,  while 
for  others,  such  as  for  even  stands  of  Spruce,  which  are 


246  PRINCIPLES  OF  AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 

liable  to  blow  down  when  thinned,  it  might  be  better  to 
cut  clean,  and  keep  the  trees  in  even-age  groups.  In  this 
latter  case  the  tract  should  be  divided  into  as  many 
parts  as  there  are  years  in  the  rotation,  and  the  timber 
from  one  part  cut  each  year.  This  would  mean  the  plant- 
ing or  seeding  of  a  like  amount  each  year. 

Capital  Growing  Stock.  This  represents  the  actual 
amount  of  trees  on  the  land  which  is  producing  wood 
growth  of  value.  The  nearer  this  approaches  to  the 
normal  growing  stock  the  better  the  condition  of  the 
forest  and  the  larger  its  returns. 

Actual  Income  represents  the  annual  return  which  a 
given  forest  tract  is  producing. 

Increasing  Value  of  Forests.  In  countries  where 
forestry  has  reached  a  high  degree  of  development  a 
piece  of  land  is  regarded  as  being  in  forest  as  soon  as 
it  is  stocked  with  trees,  even  if  the  seedlings  are  not  yet 
over  two  inches  high  and  are  hardly  to  be  seen  at  a  short 
distance.  Such  a  piece  of  land  should  have  increased 
value  and  should  be  regarded  as  earning  a  rate  of  inter- 
est. It  is  so  regarded  in  many  of  the  European  states, 
and  money  lenders  there  consider  this  matter  as  impor- 
tant when  placing  a  loan;  for  while  the  increase  on  such 
land  cannot  be  gathered  at  all  for  perhaps  sixteen  or 
twenty  years,  and  then  only  a  small  amount,  yet  a  cer- 
tain increase  in  woody  tissue  is  being  stored  up  each 
year  which  will  later  on  be  harvested.  It  should  be 
regarded  as  being  worth  at  any  time  a  certain  proportion 
of  its  total  value  at  maturity,  which  perhaps  will  not 
come  for  twenty  years,  but  if  a  forest  is  reasonably  pro- 
tected from  fire,  it  is  almost  as  sure  to  earn  a  certain 
increment  as  that  the  conditions  on  the  earth  will  remain 
as  they  are  for  eighty  years.  And  if  a  forest  is  twenty 
years  old,  it  may  be  in  such  condition  that  it  would  be 
wasteful  to  try  to  derive  any  income  from  it  for  perhaps 


FOREST  ECONOMICS.  247 

twenty  years  more,  yet  it  is  worth  perhaps  one-third  of 
what  it  will  be  worth  twenty  years  hence.  Thus,  if  at 
forty  years  it  will  yield  ninety  cords  of  paper  pulp  per 
acre,  worth  five  dollars  per  cord,  it  should  at  twenty 
years  be  worth  about  $140,  after  allowing  for  compound 
interest  at  six  per  cent. 

Unproductive  Forest  Land.  In  almost  every  range 
of  forest  there  will  be  some  land  that  is  quite  unproductive. 
This  will  generally  consist  of  ledgy  land,  or  that  which  is 
elevated  above  the  tree  line,  or  perhaps  may  consist  of 
extended  swamps.  But  on  this  account  it  should  not  be 
thought  worthless,  but  should  be  allowed  to  produce 
what  growth  it  can,  especially  where  it  is  valuable  in 
protecting  the  sources  of  streams,  and  in  the  case  of  ele- 
vated mountain  sides  the  scrubby  growth  of  no  value 
for  timber  may  be  very  valuable  in  preventing  land  slips 
or  snow  slides.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  individuals 
having  small  holdings  such  considerations  do  not  apply, 
but  they  are  important  and  should  be  encouraged  in 
any  comprehensive  forestry  scheme. 

European  Systems  of  Forest  Management  have  been 
frequently  referred  to  as  being  applicable  to  our  condi- 
tions, but,  while  we  can  learn  much  of  value  from  the 
history  and  practice  of  European  forest  administration, 
our  conditions  are  so  very  different  from  those  existing 
in  Europe  that  much  discretion  must  be  exercised  in 
adapting  their  methods  to  our  conditions.  The  chief 
difference  between  their  conditions  and  ours  is  in  the 
higher  price  of  their  timber  and  their  cheaper  hand  labor, 
which  makes  practicable  there  very  different  methods  than 
could  be  profitably  used  here.  The  conditions  in  the 
remote  parts  of  Russia  are  more  like  those  in  this  country 
than  are,  perhaps,  to  be  found  elsewhere  in  Europe,  and 
there  is  still  in  those  sections  a  great  waste  of  forest  prod- 
ucts, and  large  losses  occur  there  annually  from  forest 


248  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

fires.  But  in  the  most  accessible  parts  of  Russia,  and 
in  Sweden,  Norway,  and  in  the  larger  portion  of  Ger- 
many and  France,  there  is  a  profitable  market  for  all  we 
term  waste  forest  products,  such  as  the  smaller  top  logs, 
the  branches,  twigs,  leaves,  stumps,  underbrush,  and 
even  the  roots  of  trees.  In  this  country  such  material 
encumbers  the  ground,  and  greatly  increases  the  danger 
of  forest  fires,  which  is  by  far  the  greatest  source  of  injury 
to  growing  timber. 

Taxes  on  Timber  Lands.  The  taxes  on  timber  lands 
are  generally  excessive  in  this  country,  and  entirely  out 
of  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  land,  and  it  is  largely 
on  this  account  that  owners  of  timber  lands  do  not  care 
to  hold  them.  This,  as  a  matter  of  State  policy,  is  um\ise, 
for  the  reason  that  it  prevents  the  development  cf  eco- 
nomic forestry.  In  most  European  countries  where 
forestry  is  well  developed  it  is  customary  to  levy  a  small 
tax  on  the  land  and  to  tax  the  products  only  when  they 
are  harvested.  Such  a  tax  system  is  almost  unknown 
in  this  country,  but  it  is  much  more  just  for  forest  prop- 
erty than  our  ordinary  taxing  methods.  It  would  seem 
that  forest  property  ought  to  be  regarded  in  a  special 
class  for  the  purposes  of  taxation,  for  the  reason  that  as  a 
matter  of  State  policy  it  should  be  encouraged,  and  the 
ordinary  methods  of  taxation  retard  its  best  develop- 
ment. 

Income  from  Game  Preserves.  Most  of  the  European 
forests  are  used  as  game  preserves,  as  well  as  for  forestry 
purposes.  It  is  well  known,  however,  that  the  presence 
of  large  game  in  the  forest  is  generally  a  great  disadvan- 
tage, and  that  much  injury  may  come  from  its  presence 
there,  and  the  rental  of  about  twenty-five  cents  per  acre, 
which  is  the  price  generally  paid  for  the  use  of  forest 
preserves,  is  not  sufficient  to  cover  the  loss. 

The  German  forestry  service  generally  think  it  desira- 


[To  face  page  249.] 


FIG.  73. — Scene  in  the  Black  Forest  near  Oberthal,  Germany, 
near  a  Popular  Resort. 


FOREST  ECONOMICS.  249 

ble  to  have  game  in  the  forests  for  other  considerations 
than  that  of  its  rental  value,  and  chiefly  from  the  fact 
that  it  adds  interest  to  the  forest,  and  in  this  way  attracts 
the  attention  of  parties  who  otherwise  would  not  be  so 
much  interested  in  it.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  sentiment 
attached  to  the  presence  of  this  game  among  the  foresters 
themselves,  and  it  is  said  that  were  it  not  for  this  senti- 
ment, Germany  could  never  keep  as  fine  a  body  of  men  in 
its  forestry  service  as  it  now  has.  In  the  renting  of  land 
as  a  game  preserve,  it  is  customary  to  limit  the  number 
of  deer,  etc.,  that  shall  be  killed  in  any  one  season.  It  is 
customary  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  game  of  the  forest 
ranges  each  year.  In  the  case  of  deer  this  is  done  by 
feeding  them  in  paddocks  during  the  winter. 

Government  Supervision  of  Forests  in  Germany.  It 
is  the  policy  of  the  government  in  most  of  the  u-rman 
provinces  not  to  interfere  more  than  is  necessary  in  the 
management  of  private  woodlands,  although  the  custom 
varies  in  the  different  provinces.  On  this  account,  where 
the  land  is  not  much  broken,  there  are  few  requirements 
in  regard  to  maintaining  forests;  but  where  the  land  is 
much  broken,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Bavarian  Alps  and  the 
Black  Forest,  it  is  sometimes  customary  to  require  pri- 
vate owners  to  deposit  the  cost  of  replanting  their  land 
when  they  cut  their  timber,  and  if  they  do  not  attend  to  the 
replanting  within  a  certain  period  it  is  done  by  the  go  '- 
ernment.  It  is  the  very  general  settled  policy  of  the 
provincial  governments  to  keep  in  forest  about  the  same 
area  that  is  now  devoted  to  this  purpose,  and  si  .ice  the 
water  powers  in  the  valleys  are  dependent  for  the  regular- 
ity of  their  supply  upon  the  forests  that  are  upon  the 
mountain  sides,  the  government  reasons  that  the  exer- 
cise of  some  supervision  in  this  matter  is  necessary  for 
the  well-being  of  all.  Where  forests  are  owned  by  munici- 
palities, the  municipal  authorities  can  generally  hire  theii 


250  PRINCIPLES  OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

own  superintendent;  but  in  some  provinces  the  govern- 
ment generally  manages  to  have  laws  passed  that  will 
make  it  most  convenient  for  municipalities  to  employ 
the  government  superintendent.  In  the  case  of  munici- 
pal forests  the  governments  generally  allow  the  cutting 
of  only  the  increase  each  year.  If  this  matter  was  left 
entirely  to  the  will  of  the  people,  they  would  frequently 
sacrifice  the  future  for  present  gains.  This  supervision 
may  be  likened  very  much  to  that  which  is  exercised  in 
many  States  in  preventing  cities  and  towns  from  acquir- 
ing an  indebtedness  beyond  a  certain  percentage  of  their 
taxable  valuation.  However,  in  case  there  is  a  pressing 
need  for  some  public  improvement,  as  for  instance  a 
schoolhouse,  the  government  may  allow  extra  cuttings 
for  this  special  purpose,  but  in  after  years  the  annual 
cuttings  must  be  lessened  until  the  capital  growing  stock 
of  wood  on  the  land  is  made  good. 

Forest  Reservations  and  National  Parks.  Many  of 
the  forest  reservations  in  this  country  are  in  need  of 
immediate  attention.  Much  of  the  virgin  timber  on  them 
has  passed  its  prime  and  is  decaying,  and  the  constant 
liability  to  forest  fires  makes  the  young  growth  very 
unsafe.  The  increased  demand  for  timber  and  the  high 
price  for  the  same  has  encouraged  lumbermen  in  trying 
to  have  the  timber  on  such  reservations  thrown  onto  the 
market.  When  cut  in  the  ordinary  manner,  there  is 
practically  nothing  left,  and  the  end  of  the  tree  growth 
is  reached.  If  this  were  to  be  managed  in  a  proper  way, 
the  mature  trees  would  be  cut  as  soon  as  there  was  a 
demand  for  lumber,  and  those  trees  should  be  left  which 
are  still  growing  thriftily.  In  some  cases,  there  is  talk 
of  utilizing  some  of  these  reservations  as  national  parks, 
and  in  America  too  often  the  park  idea  means  simply  a 
piece  of  land  from  which  nothing  is  removed.  The  best 
plan  for  managing  these  large  tracts  of  timber  would 


FOREST  ECONOMICS.  251 

probably  be  to  use  them  as  examples  of  good  forestry,  as 
well  as  for  parks,  as  the  one  purpose  need  not  in  the  least 
interfere  with  the  other.  It  is  quite  customary  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  to  have  woodland  resorts  carried  on  in 
this  way.  The  carrying  out  of  such  a  plan  means  practi- 
cally the  establishment  of  a  business,  which  at  the  outset 
will  employ  a  large  number  of  men  in  harvesting  the 
mature  trees,  which  will  generally  be  from  one-third 
to  one-half  of  that  which  is  standing.  This  business, 
however,  will  not  cease  to  be  productive  when  the  mature 
trees  are  cut,  but  will  go  on  indefinitely  producing  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  annual  growth  which  can  be  harvested. 
Putting  a  reservation  onto  this  basis  would  have  the  effect 
of  building  up  the  country  permanently,  and  would  un- 
doubtedly lead  to  the  establishment  of  summer  resorts 
in  the  most  favored  localities  in  them,  which  would  also 
add  to  their  prosperity.  The  government  can  well  afford 
to  do  this,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  perpetual  and  pays 
no  taxes,  while  perhaps  it  would  be  extremely  unwise  for 
individuals  to  engage  in  such  an  enterprise,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  taxes  are  too  high  and  the  profits  are  too  long 
delayed.  On  many  of  the  Indian  reservations  such  an 
arrangement  as  this  would  result  in  great  benefit  to  the 
tribes  located  there,  for  it  would  assure  them  in  the  con- 
tinuance of  their  reservations  as  homes,  and  at  the  same 
time  bring  them  in  close  contact  with  the  whites,  and 
give  them  regular  employment  and  regular  income. 
Such  parks  would  be  admirable  army  posts  for  cavalry, 
which  could  be  used  to  prevent  trespass. 


252  PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN  FORESTRY. 


FORESTRY  VERSUS  LUMBERING. 

By  DR.  C.  A.  SCHENCK. 

Suppose  fate's  kindness  should  make  you  the  owner 
of  200,000  acres  of  virgin  pine  forests,  containing  1,200 
million  feet  of  lumber,  somewhere  in  Arkansas  or  Georgia. 
If  you  are  a  lumberman,  you  will  erect  a  plant  of  about 
100  million  feet  annual  output,  you  will  convert  the  entire 
stumpage  within  twelve  years  into  gold  standard  money, 
and  you  will  then  look  out  for  another  field  to  employ 
both  your  money  and  your  grit.  The  land,  the  little 
duchy  of  200.000  acres  you  used  to  own — well,  you  throw 
it  away;  denuded  of  timber  of  it  is  not  worth  the  taxes. 

If  you  are  a  forester,  you  will  start  in  a  similar  way; 
you  will  erect,  perhaps,  a  plant  of  somewhat  smaller 
capacity,  say  of  80  million  feet  per  annum;  a  good  mill 
you  must  have,  for  you  want  to  cut  all  of  the  old  timber 
which  has  stopped  growing,  which  is  approaching  its  nat- 
ural limit  of  life,  and  convert  it  into  money  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  One  thousand  million  feet  of  the  1,200  million 
you  are  likely  to  find  consisting  of  mature  and  hypermature 
trees.  In  12^  years  your  mill  will  have  consumed  them. 
The  200  million  originally  left  on  the  ground  consist 
of  thrifty  trees  growing  at  an  annual  rate  of  about  5  per 
cent.  In  12$  years,  at  that  rate,  they  have  developed 
into  360  million.  In  addition,  the  young  trees  originally 
overlooked  have  grown  into  size  worth  tallying;  at  the  end 
of  the  124^  years'  campaign  you  are  likely  to  find  200 
million  of  them.  Of  course  the  forest  then  contains 
smaller  and  less  timber  than  there  was  found  at  the  start. 
But  all  of  it  is  thrifty  and  surrounded  by  an  abundant 
progeny  of  sapling-size,  ready  to  shoot  ahead  as  soon  as 
the  "parents"  have  been  removed. 


FOREST  ECONOMICS.  253 

From  now  on  the  forester  curtails  his  annual  cut. 
The  forest  does  not  contain  hypermature  trees.  Only 
that  number  of  feet  is  annually  cut.  selected  from  the 
largest  and  best  trees  left,  whch  will  equla  the  annual 
productiveness  of  the  ground,  say  40  million  feet.  A 
large  production  we  cannot  expect  on  pine  soil.  Were 
the  soil  better,  producing  annually  300  or  400  feet  per 
acre,  then  agriculture  should  occupy  it,  which  on  rich 
soil,  without  a  doubt,  is  the  most  remunerative  business. 

Poor  soil,  rough  climate,  steep  mountains,  are  the 
domain  of  forestry.  Under  reversed  conditions,  agri- 
culture ought  to  monopolize  the  use  of  the  ground,  and, 
be  it  after  lumbering  or  after  forestry ,the  ground  should 
be  made  ready  for  the  plough  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

But  we  must  return  to  our  example:  As  long  as  the 
forester,  after  withdrawing  from  the  forests  in  12i-  years 
the  extraordinary  surplus  of  primeval  trees,  restricts  the 
annual  harvest  to  the  amount  of  the  annual  production, 
the  forest  will  act  like  the  hen  laying  golden  eggs.  Forty 
million  feet  is,  we  have  assumed,  our  annual  production. 

The  trees  grow,  as  sure  as  the  sun  shines  and  as  sure  as 
the  rain  falls — sunshine,  air,  and  water  being  the  main 
factors  of  wood  fibre.  In  years  of  low  prices  the  forester 
will  restrict  or  stop  cutting;  in  years  of  good  prices  he 
will  double  or  treble  the  output — always,  however, 
keeping  close  to  the  average  of  40  million  per  year. 

The  lumberman  is  an  economic  nomad,  shifting  his 
business  from  one  tract  to  the  other,  and  taking  one  risk 
after  the  other. 

The  forester  is  an  economic  settler,  sticking  to  the 
original  place  of  investment  and  continuing  on  it  a  business 
which  he  has  once  found  remunerative. 

He  does  not,  of  course,  stick  to  the  original  total 
amount  invested;  he  begins  with  6,000  feet  per  acre,  he 
continues  with,  say,  1,800  feet  per  acre.  He  keeps  on  the 


254  PRINCIPLES   OP  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 

ground  that  value  of  stumpage  which  yields  him  the 
highest  interest  in  the  safest  manner. 

The  lumberman  cuts  every  merchantable  tree,  not 
stopping  to  think  whether  it  grows  at  an  annual  rate  of 
2  per  cent,  or  10  per  cent. 

The  forester  cuts  only  such  trees,  but  all  such  trees, 
the  rate  of  growth  of  which  has  fallen  below  the  percentage 
desired  by  him. 

LOGGING  EXPENSES. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  logging  expenses  in  forestry, 
<o  begin  with,  are  higher  than  in  lumbering.  The  ex- 
penses for  trams,  roads,  trails,  and  dams  are  the  same, 
whether  6,000  feet  of  lumber  or  only  5,000  feet  of  lumber 
are  cut  per  acre.  If  the  system  of  transportation  costs, 
on  an  average,  60  cents  per  acre,  then  in  the  case  of  for- 
estry 5,000  feet,  and  in  the  case  of  lumbering  6,000  feet, 
\\ill  share,  in  the  expense  making  it  for  the  one  12  cents 
and  for  the  other  10  cents  per  1,000  feet. 

There  are  other  factors  resulting  in  higher  logging 
expenses  under  forestry  methods.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  remaining  growth  from  being  injured 
when  the  majority  of  the  timber  is  cut  and  removed. 
The  difficulty  of  supervising  contractors  and  workmen 
is  increased.  For  railroad  ties,  road  poles,  corduroy 
timber,  etc.,  not  the  best  and  handiest  saplings  must  be 
used.  Trees  or  poles  of  inferior  quality  must  suffice  the 
task. 

There  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  the  logging  expenses 
per  1,000  feet,  board  measure,  during  the  first  "campaign," 
are  higher  in  forestry  than  in  lumbering.  During  the 
second  campaign,  however,  they  will  be  lower  than  usual, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  system  of  transportation  needs 
only  reviving  in  order  to  be  available  for  another  run. 


FOREST   ECONOMICS.  255 

Suppose  the  logs  cost  us,  per  acre,  30  cents  extra 
under  forestry  during  the  first  campaign.  What  does  that 
mean?  It  means  that  we  have  invested,  per  acre,  30  cents 
in  second  growth  forest.  Our  extra  expense  of  30  cents 
has  resulted  in  its  production.  Towering  over  the  second 
growth,  consisting  of  seedlings  and  saplings,  we  find 
those  trees  of  merchantable  qualities  which  we  saved 
out  of  the  6,000  feet  per  acre  at  the  first  campaign,  because 
they  were  then  growing  at  a  high  rate  of  interest.  The 
free  position  of  their  crowns  has  of  late  given  their  growth 
an  additional  impetus.  Now,  in  the  course  of  the  next 
campaign  they  will  be  cut,  partly  on  account  of  their 
gradually  slackened  growth,  partly  on  account  of  the 
demands  for  light  from  the  side  of  the  undergrowth  at 
their  feet. 


THE  NEW  FOREST  AND  ITS  VALUE. 

These  mother  trees  have  yielded  us,  by  their  annual 
growth,  about  5  per  cent,  interest  on  their  value.  They 
have  further  completed  the  seeding  of  the  ground  and 
have  created  an  embryo  forest,  free  of  charge — aside  from 
the  expense  of  30  cents  mentioned  above. 

If  this  embryo  forest  and  the  saplings,  poles,  and  young 
trees  mixed  with  it  are  worth  over  30  cents  per  acre, 
then  forestry  was,  in  the  given  example,  a  more  remu- 
nerative business  than  lumbering. 

Virginity  of  the  forest "  has  gone  for  good.  The  new 
forest  will  last  forever;  the  largest  trees  will  be  periodi- 
cally cut  in  every  section,  and  a  period  of  a  few  years 
will  be  enough  to  replace  them  by  those  next  in  size. 

Now,  what  is  such  a  forest  worth,  containing  all  sizes 
of  trees,  all  healthy  and  vigorous,  none  over-aged  and 
decrepit?  The  problem  is  easy  to  solve.  A  farm  which 


256  PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


rents  out  at  50  cents  per  acre,  and  on  which  10  cents  taxes 
are  annually  due,  is  worth —  =  800  cents  per  acre. 

A  forest  which  jdelds,  on  the  average,  annually  200 
feet,  board  measure,  per  acre,  worth  30  cents — these  200 
feet  are  obtained  by  shaving  off  always  the  oldest  and 
largest  trees — and  on  which  5  cents  taxes  are  annually 

OQ r 

due,  is  worth  =500  cents  per  acre. 

U.uO 

In  other  words,  at  an  extra  expense  of  30  cents  in  our 
logging  operations,  and  by  leaving  1,000  feet,  board  meas- 
ure, of  thrifty  timber  on  the  ground  in  the  first  campaign, 
we  have  formed  a  forest  worth  $5.00  per  acre,  and  on  these 
$5.00  wre  shall  annually  make  25  cents  revenue.  Such 
must  be  the  outcome  as  sure  as  the  sun  will  shine  and  as 
sure  as  the  rain  will  fall,  for  sunshine  and  rainfall — to 
repeat  it — are  the  components  of  timber  production.  Men 
need  not  move  a  finger.  Nature  does  not  require  any 
help. 

FOREST  FIRES. 

Nature  requires  something  else,  and  requires  it  badty: 
Protection  from  destruction  by  fires.  In  most  sections 
of  the  United  States  the  forestry  problem  is  identical 
with  the  forest  fire  problem.  As  long  as  a  second  growth 
is  exposed  to  fires  of  annihilating  fierceness,  there  is  no 
use  of  talking  about  forestry,  there  is  no  sense  of  leaving 
a  stick  of  merchantable  timber  on  the  ground  during  the 
lumbering  campaign.  As  the  State  does  not  protect  our 
young  forests  from  fire,  we  have  to  do  it  ourselves.  The 
expense  for  protection  will  considerably  curtail  our  future 
returns  and  the  value  of  our  forest.  Supposing  that 
protection  costs  us  10  cents  per  acre  per  annum,  our  forest 

is  worth  only  — — — =  300  cents  per  acre. 


FOREST   ECONOMICS.  257 

Even  less  than  that;  5  per  cent,  interest  on  a  some- 
what risky  investment  does  not  seem  sufficient.  We 
shall  have  to  capitalize  our  annual  net  yield  with  about 
8  per  cent.,  to  bear  due  regard  to  the  dangers  threatening 
the  undertaking.  At  8  per  cent.,  the  value  of  ou*  second 

.„  ,     30-5-10 
forest  will  be  — — — —  =  118  cents  per  acre. 

There  are,  to  be  sure,  many  tracts  in  the  South  where 
practical  forestry  is  an  absurdity,  because  fire  cannot  be 
controlled,  owing  to  local  and  climatic  reasons,  or  owing 
to  the  habits  of  the  native  population,  unrestricted  by 
education  or  law. 


CONCLUSION. 

On  non-agricultural  lands,  forestry  will  pay  better 
than  lumbering. 

(1)  If   the   excess   of  logging  expenses  is  outweighed 
by  the  value  of  the  "new  forest"; 

(2)  If  the  taxes  on  the  forest  land  are  reasonable; 

(3)  If  fires  can  be  controlled. 

Every  wood  owner,  before  beginning  to  cut  the  trees, 
should  ask  for  an  expert's  advice  whether  lumbering  or 
forestry  will  pay  him  best.  Dollars  and  cents  express 
the  superiority  of  one  method  over  the  other,  and  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  both  methods  combined  with  a  little 
insight  in  banking  and  finances  must  be  the  umpire  be- 
tween forestry  and  lumbering. 


FOREST-FIRE  LAWS. 

It  seems  to  be  the  general  experience  of  all  countries 
that  special  laws  enacted  must  be  enforced  by  special 
authority  to  prevent  forest  fires.  All  the  more  pro- 


258  PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN    FORESTRY. 

gressive  States  have  such  laws,  and  the  best  of  them  are 
much  like  the  forest  fire  law  of  Minnesota,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  digest.  This  act,  which  was  passed  by  the 
Legislature  of  Minnesota  in  1895,  makes  a  systematic 
division  of  the  State  in  such  a  way  that  every  section  of 
it  is  in  charge  of  a  forest  fire  warden.  It  provides  for  the 
appointment  of  a  chief  fire  warden,  who  shall  have  super- 
vision of  all  fire  wardens.  Supervisors  of  towns,  mayors 
of  cities,  and  presidents  of  village  councils  are  constituted 
fire  wardens  in  their  respective  towns,  cities  and  villages. 
The  chief  fire  warden  has  power  to  appoint  as  fire  wardens 
other  persons,  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  to  protect 
unorganized  territory.  One-third  of  the  expense  is 
borne  by  the  State  and  two-thirds  by  the  counties.  Under 
this  act  penalties  are  prescribed  as  follows: 

The  following  are  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  $100, 
or  imprisonment  not  exceeding  three  years: 

Any  person  refusing,  without  sufficient  cause,  to  assist 
fire  wardens  in  extinguishing  forest  or  prairie  fires. 

Any  fire  warden  who  neglects  to  perform  his  duties. 

Any  person  who  wilfully,  negligently,  or  carelessly  sets 
on  fire,  or  causes  to  be  set  on  fire,  any  woods,  prairies,  or 
other  combustible  material,  thereby  causing  injury  to 
another. 

Any  person  who  shall  kindle  a  fire  on  or  dangerously 
near  to  forest  or  prairie  land,  and  leave  it  unquenched, 
or  who  shall  be  a  party  thereto. 

Any  person  who  shall  use  other  than  incombustible 
fire  wads  for  firearms,  or  carry  a  naked  torch,  firebrand, 
or  other  exposed  light,  in  or  dangerously  near  to  forest 
land. 

Any  person  who  shall  wilfully  or  heedlessly  deface 
destroy,  or  remove  any  warning  placard  posted  under  the 
requirements  of  this  act. 

Any  railroad    company  wilfully  neglecting  to  provide 


FOREST   ECONOMICS.  259 

efficient  spark-arresters  on  its  engines,  or  to  keep  its 
right  of  way  to  the  width  of  100  feet  cleared  of  combustible 
material,  or  which  shall  fail  to  comply  with  other  provi- 
sions of  section  12  of  the  above-mentioned  act. 

The  following  are  liable  to  a  penalty  of  not'  less  than 
$5  nor  more  than  $50: 

Any  railroad  employe  who  wilfully  violates  the  provi- 
sions of  section  12  of  this  act,  in  regard  to  depositing  live 
coals  or  hot  ashes  near  woodland,  and  to  reporting  fires. 

Any  owner  of  threshing  or  other  portable  steam-engine 
who  neglects  to  have  efficient  spark-arresters,  or  who  shall 
deposit  live  coals  or  hot  ashes  without  extinguishing  the 
same. 

The  following  are  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding 
$500,  or  imprisonment  in  the  State  prison  not  over  ten 
years,  or  both: 

Any  person  who  maliciously  sets  or  causes  to  be  set  on 
fire  any  woods,  prairie,  or  other  combustible  material 
whereby  the  property  of  another  is  destroyed  and  life 
sacrificed. 

The  effect  of  this  law  has  been  very  beneficial,  and  has 
prevented  much  loss  of  property  by  fire;  but  the  area 
to  be  covered  is  very  large,  much  of  it  is  very  sparsely 
populated,  and  the  funds  available  are  very  meagre  for 
best  results,  so  that,  although  it  has  been  very  ably  en- 
forced, and  some  convictions  made  under  it,  yet  it  should 
be  amended  in  several  respects  to  make  it  effective. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION,  SYLVICULTURAL  DATA, 
AND  USES  OF  THE  IMPORTANT  AMERICAN  TIMBER 
TREES. 


262 


PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:  THE  PINES. 


263 


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PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:  THE  PINES. 


265 


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of  little  recognized 
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neighbors. 


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ly over  fields  exhausted  by 
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PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:  THE  PINES.  267 

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268 


PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


II 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:  LARCHES. 


269 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:   SPRUCES. 


271 


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PRINCIPLES    OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:  PSEUDOTSUGA,  FIRS.       273 


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274 


PRINCIPLES   OF  AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:  CYPRESS. 


275 


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276 


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277 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:  YEW. 


279 


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281 


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TABULAR   CLASSING  ATI  ON :    WILL-OW   FAMILY. 


283 


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Cottonwood 
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Populus  deltoides 
Marsh. 
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Diameter,  2  to  7 


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291 


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Not 
shrubby. 
majestic  t 
ities.  A 
second 


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I  111 


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strong,  coarse- 
dish  brown. 
manufacture  of 
:onstruction,  for 
interior  finish. 


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293 


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Pin  Oak 

(Swamp  Oak) 
Quercus  palustri 
Muenchh. 
Heipht,  70  to  80 
Diameter,  2  to  3 


Water  Oak 
(Spotted  Oak) 
Quercus  nigra  (L 
Height,  80 
Diameter,  2  to  3 


tain  slope 
ymmetrical 
oliage.  A 
second  seas 


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beauti 
with 
matu 


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Height,  70  to  80 

Diameter,  2  ft. 


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Elm. 
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PRINCIPLES   OF   AMERICAN   FORESTRY. 


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y  strong, 
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durable, 


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sed  in 
agricultural 
of  wagon 
rees,  flou 
ls, 
erage 


,  hard 
gh, 
to 


toug 
cult 
U 


of  agr 
hubs 
dle-tre 
barrels 
cooper 


difficu 
flexibl 


. 
Used  in  manufacture 
of  agricultural  implements, 
hubs  of  wagon  -wheels,  axe- 
handles,  rims  for  bicycle- 
wheels,  and  for  bridge  tim- 
ber, railway  ties,  sills  of 
buildings. 


+ 

W 


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TABULAR  CLASSIFICATION:  ELMS,  ETC. 


295 


II 


So 


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tc     - 
£  "  «,  °  35^  c2  2 


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Does  well  in  poor  so 
fers  moist  or  wet  sit 
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swamps.  Reproductio 
good  everywhere.  A 
grower  and  a  desirable  o 
ment  for  parks  and  road 
Sow  seed  in  autumn  in 
soil. 


I-S-al- 

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Borders  of  stre 
rich  bottom  lands. 
Occasionally  pla 
an  ornamental  tree 
often  subject  to  fun 
eases,  which  stun  tits 


A  hardy,  thrifty  tree,  and 
a  rapid  grower.  Not  fas- 
tidious as  to  soil.  A  very 
valuable  tree.  Desirable  for 
timber-planting.  Stratify 
seed  arid  sow  in  spring. 
Fruit  ripens  in  autumn. 


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Eastern  N 
New  Brun 
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idely  distributed,  tree 
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Texas  and  Northeastern 
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TREE. 


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GLOSSARY. 


Accretion.  Growth  or  formation  by  external  additions  to  the  tree, 
Acorn.  The  fruit  of  an  oak. 

Albumen.     Food  stored  up  in  seed  with  embryo;  endosperm. 
Alternate  leaves.     A  single    leaf    at   a    node;    not  opposite    (e.g. 

Willow). 

Altimeter.  An  instrument  for  taking  grades,  levels,  and  heights. 
Angle  mirror.  \  Instruments  for  turning  of  angles  in  subdividing 
Angle  prism.  \  land. 

Annual.     Yearly;  a  plant  which  reaches  maturity  and  dies  at  the 

end  of  a  single  season  (e.g.  Pea,  Wheat). 
Annual  ring.     The  layer  of  wood  formed  each  year. 
Anther.     The  pollen-containing  sac ;  enlarged  part  of  stamen. 
Arboriculture.     The  growing  of  trees  for  any  purpose  whatsoever. 
Arboreous.     Tree-like. 
Assimilation.     In  plants,  the  production  of  organic  matter  from 

inorganic    matter. 
Axil.     The  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  leaf-blade,  bract, 

petiole,  pedicle  or  peduncle,  with  the  branch  or  stalk  from 

which  it  springs. 
Back-firing.     The  burning,  under  control,  of  material  in  front  of 

a  fire  to  prevent  its  spreading, 
Bark.     A  general  term  applied   to  all  the  tissues  outside  of  the 

wood  proper. 

Basal.     Attached  to  the  base. 
Basal  area.     The  cross-sectional  area  of  a  tree  near  the  ground, 

visually  taken  about  four  and  one-half  feet  above  ground  to 

avoid  the  excessive  swelling  of  the  root  buttresses. 
Bast.     The  woody  fibrous  tissue  of  the  inner  bark. 
Baummesser.     An  instrument  for  measuring   the  height  of  the 

trees,  heights  and  diameter  at  any  part  on  the  stem  of  a 

standing  tree. 

307 


308  GLOSSARY. 

Berry.  Botanically  a  fleshy  fruit  (e.g.  Grape,  Currant).  Com- 
monly applied  to  many  kinds  of  fruits  (e.g.  Strawberry, 
Mulberry). 

Blade  of  a  leaf.     The  expanded  portion;  the  wings. 

Blight,  The  dying  without  apparent  cause  of  the  tenderer  parts 
of  plants. 

Board-foot.  The  unit  of  board  measure;  equivalent  to  a  board 
12  in.  X  12  in.  XI  in.  One  cubic  foot  is  considered  as  equiv- 
alent to  ten  board  feet,  allowing  for  waste  in  working. 

B.  M.     Abbreviation  for  board  measure  (q.v.). 

Board  measure  (B.  M.).  The  system  used  by  lumbermen  in  which 
the  board-foot  (q.v.)  is  the  unit. 

Brad.     A   much-reduced   leaf. 

Broad-leaved  trees.  Applies  to  trees  whose  leaves  have  a  broad 
flat  surface,  unlike  the  needle-  or  awl-shaped  leaves  of  the 
conifers. 

Budding.  The  operation  and  process  of  inserting  a  bud  with  the 
intention  that  it  shall  grow. 

Bud-division.  A  term  including  all  methods  of  propagation  ex- 
cept by  seed  (e.g.  Grafting,  Layering,  etc.). 

Bud-variety.  A  strange  variety  or  form  appearing  without  obvi- 
ous cause  upon  a  plant  or  in  cuttings  or  layers;  a  sport. 
A  bud-variety  springs  from  a  bud  in  distinction  from  a 
seed-variety,  which  springs  from  a  seed. 

Callus.  The  new  and  protruding  tissue  which  forms  over  a  wound, 
as  over  the  end  of  a  cutting. 

Calyx.     Outer  circle  of  leaves  about  a  flower. 

Cambium.  In  trees  and  shrubs,  the  layer  of  new  growing  tissue 
between  the  bark  and  wood. 

Cants.  A  term  used  in  mills  to  designate  the  pieces  cut  from  the 
sides  of  a  log  and  which  are  to  be  again  cut  into  quarter- 
sawed  lumber.  It  is  sometimes  also  applied  to  the  squared 
centerpiece  of  the  log. 

Carbon  dioxide.  A  gas  composed  of  one  part  of  carbon  to  two 
parts  of  oxygen;  carbonic-acid  gas. 

Carpel.  A  simple  pistil  or  one  of  the  divisions  of  a  compound 
pistil. 

Catkin.  A  scaly  spike-like  dense  flower  cluster  (e.g.  Willow, 
Birch). 

Cell.     The  anatomical  unit  of  living  tissues. 

Chlorophyll.     The  green  coloring  matter  of  plants;  leaf-green. 

Ciliate.     Hairy  on  the  margin. 


GLOSSARY.  309 

Cleft  leaf.  Cut  into  lobes  somewhat  more  than  half  the  dedth  of 
wings  (e.g.  Silver  Maple). 

Compass.  A  magnetic  needle  used  to  determine  directions  in  the 
woods. 

Compound  leaf.  One  in  which  the  blade  or  wings  are  composed 
of  more  than  one  part  (e.g.  Ohio  Buckeye,  Mountain  Ash). 

Cone.     The  flower  or  fruit  of  a  conifer. 

Conifer.     A  member  of  the  Pine  Family  or  Coniferae. 

Coniferous.     Cone-bearing. 

Cooperage.  The  business  of  making  wooden  vessels,  as  casks, 
barrels,  tubs. 

Coppice.     A  wood  grown  from  sprouts. 

Corolla.  Inner  leaves  of  the  flower;  generally  distinguished  from 
the  calyx  by  being  of  a  color  other  than  green. 

Cotyledon.     One  of  the  leaves  of  the  embryo;  a  seed  leaf. 

Cross  staff-head.  An  instrument  for  turning  off  angles  in  survey- 
ing land,  consisting  of  an  octagonal  brass  box  with  slits 
in  the  faces  for  sighting  through. 

Crowded.  Said  of  trees  when  so  closely  grown  that  the  develop- 
ment of  their  lateral  branches  is  interfered  with. 

Crown  of  tree.     See  tree-crown. 

Cuttage.  The  practice  or  process  of  multiplying  plants  by  means 
of  cuttings. 

Cutting.  A  piece  of  a  leaf,  branch,  stem,  or  root  which  when  in- 
serted in  moist  material  is  capable  of  sending  out  roots 
and  forming  a  new  plant;  a  slip. 

Cycle.     One  of  the  circles  of  a  flower. 

Deciduous.     Falling  off;  said  of  leaves  that  fall  in  autumn. 

Dehiscent.     Said  of  fruits  that  open  at  regular  lines. 

Delinquent  tax  lands.  Lands  on  which  taxes  have  not  been  paid. 
They  are  offered  for  sale  at  stated  times  after  public  notice, 
and  tracts  which  find  no  buyers  revert  to  the  State. 

Dentate.     Toothed    with  teeth  pointing  outward,  not  forward. 

Dibber.     A  pointed  instrument  used  for  making  holes. 

Dicotyledonous.     Having  two  cotyledons  or  seed  leaves. 

Dioecious.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  borne  on  different 
plants. 

Distillation  product.  The  substance  obtained  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  a  compound. 

Divided.  Said  of  leaves  when  the  wings  are  cut  into  divisions 
down  to  base  or  midrib. 

Division.     See   Bud-division. 


310  GLOSSARY. 

Drupe.  A  fruit  with  hard  pit  (endocarp)  and  soft  exterior  (exocarp) 
(e.g.  Plum,  Cherry,  Peach). 

Dry-rot.     A  kind  of  decay  in  wood. 

Dust  blanket.     A  layer  of  loose  earth  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Embryo.     The  miniature  plant  in  the  seed. 

Erosion.     Wearing  away. 

Evergreen.  Holding  leaves  over  winter  or  longer  until  new  leaves 
appear. 

Family.  In  botanical  classification,  a  group  of  plants  thrown  to- 
gether because  of  some  natural  common  resemblances. 
Sometimes  used  synonymously  with  order. 

Firebreak.  An  opening,  ploughed  strip  of  land,  or  anything  which 
prevents  the  spread  of  fires  in  forests  or  elsewhere. 

Firefalls.  Applied  to  areas  where  the  trees  have  fallen  owing  to 
their  roots  having  been  burned  off. 

Flmver.  A  part  of  the  plant  especially  modified  for  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  plant  by  seed. 

Forest.     A  dense  growth  of  trees. 

Forest  floor.  The  decayed  leaves  and  twigs  which  cover  the  soil 
in  forests. 

Forestry.     The  growing  of  trees  in  groups. 

Frost-hardy.  Said  of  trees  the  new  growth  of  which  is  not  easily 
killed  by  frost. 

Frost-tender.  Said  of  trees  the  new  growth  of  which  is  easily 
killed  by  frost. 

Fruit.     The  seed- containing  area  derived  from  a  single  flower. 

Fungi.     Plural  of  fungus. 

Fungous.     Pertaining  to  fungi. 

Fungus.  A  flowerless  plant  devoid  of  chlorophyll  and  drawing 
its  nourishment  from  living  organisms  or  decayed  organic 
matter. 

Genera.     Plural  of  genus. 

Generic  name.  The  name  of  the  genus  to  which  the  plant  be- 
longs and  which  with  the  name  of  the  species  forms  the 
scientific  name  of  the  plant. 

Genus.  In  botanical  classification  a  group  of  plants  having  sev- 
eral or  many  natural  common  resemblances;  a  division  of 
a  family. 

Germination.  The  act  or  process  by  which  a  seed  or  spore  gives 
rise  to  a  new  and  independent  plant. 

Glabrous.     Smooth,  not  pubescent. 

Glauber  salts.     Sodium  sulphate. 


GLOSSARY.  311 

Glaucous.  Covered  with  a  fine  white  powder,  as  that  on  a  cab- 
bage-leaf. 

Graftage.  A  system  of  propagation  comprising  all  methods  by 
which  plants  are  grown  on  roots  of  other  plants 

Grafting.     The  operation  of  inserting  a  scion  in  a  plant. 

Grafting-wax.  A  protective  substance  used  in  covering  the  junc- 
tion of  a  graft  with  the  stock  or  for  the  covering  of  wounds. 
Bailey's  formula  for  a  reliable  wax:  Resin  four  parts 
(by  weight);  beeswax  two  parts;  tallow  one  part.  Melt 
together  and  pour  into  a  pail  of  cold  water;  then  grease 
the  hands  and  pull  the  wax  until  it  is  nearly  white. 

Hardy.     Able  to  stand  a  given  climate. 

Heeling-iii.  The  operation  and  process  of  temporarily  covering 
the  roots  of  plants  to  preserve  them  until  wanted  for  per- 
manent planting. 

Height  classes.  The  arrangement  of  trees  into  classes  according 
to  height. 

Herb.     A  plant  not  woody. 

Herbaceous.  Not  woody;  said  of  plants  that  die  to  the  ground 
each  year. 

Horticulture.  The  art  and  science  of  raising  fruits,  kitchen  garden 
vegetables,  flowers,  and  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs. 

Humus.     Decomposed  organic  matter  in  the  soil. 

Hybrid.  Plant  derived  from  a  cross  between  plants  of  different 
species. 

Hybridizing.     The  operation  or  practice  of  crossing  between  species. 

Hypsometer.     An  instrument  for  taking  heights  of  trees. 

Inarching.  The  operation  and  process  of  uniting  contiguous 
plants  or  branches  while  the  parts  are  both  attached  to 
their  own  roots. 

InderSsce-nt.     Not  opening  at  regular  lines;  not  dehiscent. 

Indigenous.     Native;    i.e.,  growing  naturally  in  a  given  region. 

Inferior.  Said  of  ovary  when  all  the  floral  parts  are  attached 
above  it  (e.g.  Iowa  Crab). 

Inflorescence.     A  flower  cluster:  mode  of  arrangement  of  flowers. 

Insecticide.     A  substance  employed  to  destroy  insects. 

Involucre.  A  bract  or  series  of  bracts  subtending  a  flower-cluster 
or  fruit-cluster. 

Irregular.  Said  of  flowers  when  the  separate  parts  of  each  cycle 
are  not  of  the  same  size  and  shape  (e.g.  Locust). 

Jacob's-staff.  A  pointed  staff  which  may  be  pushed  into  the  ground  and 
on  which  instruments  are  mounted  for  taking  observations. 


312  GLOSSARY. 

Joinery.  The  art  of  framing  the  finishing  work  making  perma- 
nent wooden  fittings  and  covering  rough  lumber. 

Kerf.     The  cut  made  by  the  saw  or  the  width  of  such  cut. 

Lanceolate.  Said  of  leaves  when  from  four  to  six  times  as  long  as 
broad,  the  broadest  part  below  the  middle  and  tapering 
upward  or  both  upward  and  downward  (e.  g.  Black  Willow). 

Larva  (pi.  larvae).    The  worm-like  stage  of  insects. 

Layer.  A  shoot  which,  while  attached  to  the  plant,  takes  root 
at  one  or  more  places  and  forms  a  new  plant. 

Leaf-mould.  Decayed  leaves  and  other  organic  matter  constitut- 
ing the  forest  floor. 

Leaflet.     One  of  the  wing  divisions  of  a  compoxmd  leaf. 

Leather  board.  A  material  made  from  wood  pulp  and  which  re- 
sembles leather  in  color  and  texture. 

Legume.  A  simple  pod  opening  by  both  ventral  and  dorsal  su- 
tures; fruit  of  Pea  family  (e.g.  Locust). 

Leguminous.  Pertaining  to  the  family  Leguminosce;  said  of 
plants  bearing  legumes. 

Loam.     Friable,  mellow,  rich  soil  containing  much  humus. 

Lobe.  A  projection  or  division  of  a  leaf  not  more  than  half  the 
depth  of  the  wing. 

Lyrate.  A  pinnatifid  leaf  of  an  obovate  or  spatulate  outline  with 
the  end  lobe  large  and  roundish  and  the  lower  lobes  small 
(e.g.  Bur  Oak). 

Manure.  Plant-food,  any  substance  which  promotes  plant- 
growth. 

Mono.    Prefix  meaning  one. 

Monoecious.  Both  str.minate  and  pistillate  flowers  borne  on  the 
same  plant  (e.g.  Black  Walnut). 

Mound-layering.  Layering  by  making  a  mound  about  a  plant 
(Fig.  27). 

Mulch.  Any  loose  material  that  protects  the  soil  from  frost  or 
evaporation. 

Muskeg.  A  term  commonly  applied  to  sphagnum  swamps  by  the 
Indians  and  woodsmen  of  Northern  Minnesota. 

Narrow-leaved  trees.  Trees  with  needle-  or  awl-shaped  leaves 
which  expose  no  great  surface  to  the  light. 

Nursery.  A  plot  of  ground  set  apart  for  the  raising  of  plants 
that  are  to  be  transplanted  elsewhere.  An  establishment 
for  the  raising  of  plants. 

Oblong.    About  twice  as  long  as  broad  with  nearly  parallel  sides. 

Obovate.    The  reverse  of  ovate. 


GLOSSARY.  313 

Obtuse.    Blunt,  not  acute  (e.g.  leaflets  of  Locust). 

Odd-pinnate.  Applied  to  pinnately  compound  leaves  having  a 
terminal  leaflet  (e.g.  Ash). 

Open-grown.  Said  of  trees  when  not  grown  sufficiently  close  to 
other  trees  to  be  influenced  by  them. 

Osiers.    A  class  of  willows  used  for  baskets. 

Ovary.     The  lower  or  enlarged  part  of  the  pistil  bearing  the  ovules. 

Ovate.  About  twice  as  long  as  broad  and  tapering  from  near  the 
base  to  the  apex  (e.g.  leaves  of  Balm  of  Gilead). 

Ovoid.    Egg-shaped. 

Ovule.    A  rudimentary  seed. 

Palmate.  Said  of  parts  originating  from  a  common  point,  as  the 
veins,  lobes,  or  divisions  of  a  leaf  (e.g.  leaflets  of  Ohio  Buck- 
eye). 

Panicle.     A  loose  flower  cluster  (e.g.  White  Ash). 

Papilionaceous.  Butterfly -shaped:  applied  to  flowers  of  the  Pea 
family  (e.g.  Locust). 

Paraboloid.  The  figure  of  revolution  formed  by  turning  a  par- 
abola about  its  axis. 

Parasite.  A  plant  or  animal  that  lives  upon  and  obtain^  its  food 
from  other  living  plants  or  animals. 

Parietal  placenta.  A  placenta  upon  the  wall  of  the  ovary  (e.g 
Coffee-tree). 

Parted.     Separated  nearly  to  the  base. 

Pedicel.     A  stalk  of  a  single  flower  of  a  flower  cluster. 

Peduncle.  A  stalk  of  a  solitary  flower  or  the  common  stalk  of  a 
flower  cluster. 

Pendulous.     Hanging. 

Penta.     Prefix,  meaning  five. 

Perennial.    A  plant  living  more  than  two  years. 

Perfect  flower.  One  having  both  essential  organs,  i.e.  stamens  and 
pistil  (e.g.  Iowa  Crab). 

Perianth.     The  floral  envelopes. 

Pericarp.     The  ripened  ovary;    the  seed  vessel. 

Persistent.  Remaining  beyond  the  period  when  such  parts  gen- 
erally fall. 

Petal.    One  of  the  divisions  of  a  corolla. 

Petiole.     Leaf-stalk. 

Pinnate.  Parts  arranged  on  opposite  sides  of  a  main  axis  (e.g. 
leaflets  of  Mountain  Ash). 

Pistil.  The  part  of  the  flower  bearing  the  ovules  and  which  ripens 
into  the  fruit. 


314  GLOSSARY. 

Pistillate.  Bearing  pistils,  but  no  fertile  stamens.  Often  used 
synonymously  with  female. 

Placenta.     Place  of  attachment  of  ovules  in  an  ovary. 

Pollen.  Small  spores  produced  by  the  anthers  for  the  fertilization 
of  the  ovules. 

Pollination.     The  carrying  of  pollen  from  the  anther  to  the  stigma. 

Polygamous.  Perfect  and  unisexual  flowers  borne  on  the  same 
plant. 

Pome.     Fruit  represented  by  the  Apple,  Thorn,  Quince,  etc. 

Propagation.     The  multiplication  of  plants. 

Pruning.  The  removing  of  branches  from  a  plant  to  improve  its 
general  appearance,  or  to  check  or  encourage  growth. 

Pubescent.     Covered  with  fine,  short  hairs. 

Quarter-sawing.  The  sawing  on  the  radius,  but  as  it  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  do  this  exactly,  the  log  is  first  quartered  and 
then  sawed  into  boards,  cutting  them  alternately  from  each 
face  of  the  quarter  of  the  log.  Sawed  in  this  way  the  grain 
of  the  wood  does  not  show  nearly  so  conspicuously  and 
varied  as  in  that  tangentially  sawed,  but  the  grain  is  nar- 
rower, and  the  wood  sawed  in  this  way  does  not  warp  nearly 
so  much  as  that  tangentially  sawed,  and  is  much  more  ex- 
pensive. 

Raceme.  A  simple  inflorescence  in  which  the  flowers  are  on  ped- 
icels, and  the  lower  open  first  (e  g.  Black  Cherry). 

Ranging-poles.  Straight  poles  about  eight  feet  long  used  by  sur- 
veyors to  indicate  the  direction  of  a  line  which  is  being 
measured  or  the  position  of  points  to  be  located. 

Regular.  Parts  of  each  cycle  of  the  perianth  alike  (e.g.  Bird 
Cherry). 

Root.  A  part  of  the  plant  which  absorbs  nourishment  for  the  plant, 
or  serves  as  a  support.  It  may  be  underground  or  aerial. 

Root-cutting.     See  Cutting. 

Rudimentary.  Imperfectly  developed  or  in  an  early  state  of  de- 
velopment. 

Samara.     A  winged  fruit  (e.g.  Maple). 

Saprophyte.  A  plant  which  lives  upon  and  obtains  its  food  from 
dead  organic  matter. 

Sapwood.     The  outer  or  latest  formed  wood  of  a  Avoody  plant. 

Sawing.  The  two  methods  used  in  sawing  are  termed  tangential 
sawing  and  quarter-sawing,  q.v. 

Scion.  The  part  inserted  in  the  stock  in  the  various  processes  of 
graftage. 


GLOSSARY.  315 

Seed.     The  body  containing  the  embryo  plant:  the  ripened  ovule. 
Seedling.     In  nursery  practice  a  young  plant  grown  from  seed  and 

not  having  been  transplanted. 

Seeding  tree.     A  tree  sufficiently  mature  to  produce  fruit. 
Seed  variety.     A  variety  that  comes  true  from  seed. 
Sepal.     One  of  the  divisions  of  the  calyx. 
Serrate.     Saw-toothed  (e.g.  leaves  of  Balm  of  Gilead). 
Sessile.     Without  stalk. 
Sheath.     In  pines,  the  case-like  part  surrounding  the  base  of  the 

needle  cluster. 

Shrub.     A  wood}'  plant  with  no  main  stem  or  trunk;  a  bush. 
Silver  grain.     Bands  or  plates  of  medullary  rays  exposed  radially 

on  longitudinal  section. 

Simple.     Composed  of  one  part,  not  compound. 
Sinuate.     Strongly  wavy. 
Sinus.     An  indentation. 

Solar-pit.     A  pit  for  rooting  cuttings  by  the  sun's  heat  (page  105). 
Spatulate.     Shaped  like  a  spatula:   broadly  rounded  at  the  apex, 

tapering  toward  the  base. 
Species.     A  division  of    a  genus  the  plants  of  which  seem  to  bo 

derived  from  an  immediate  common  ancestor. 
Species  class.     A  group  of  trees  of  the  same  species  made  in  forest 

survey. 

Specific  gravity.     Weight  compared  with  distilled  water  at  4  de- 
grees Centigrade.     Where  used  here  with  reference  to  wood 

it  refers  to  absolutely  dry  wood  unless  otherwise  noted. 
Spike.     A  simple,   dense,   raceme-like  inflorescence  with  flowers 

sessile  or  nearly  so. 
Spore.     A  reproductive  body,  commonly  applied  to  those  borne  by 

plants  that  do  not  produce  seed.      Analogous  but  not  ho- 
mologous to  a  seed. 

Stamen.     Pollen-bearing  organ  of  a  flower. 
Staminate.     Said  of  flowers  bearing  stamens,  but  no  pistils.     Often 

used  synonymously  with  male. 
Stem.     The  main  axis  or  one  of  the  main  axes  of  a  plant.     It  may 

be   underground    or   aerial.     Commonly   used   in  place   of 

petiole,  pedicel,  and  peduncle. 
Sterile.     Not  fertile,  not  able  to  reproduce. 
Stigma.     The  part  of  the  pistil  upon  which  the  pollen  falls  and 

germinates. 
Stipule.     A  leaf  appendage  at  the  base  of  the  blade  or  petiole, 

not  alwaj^s  present  (e.g.  Black  Willow). 


316  GLOSSARY. 

x 

Stock  plants.     Plants  used  to  propagate  from. 

Stomn  (pi.  stomata)  Breathing  pores  of  leaves. 

Stratification.  A  method  of  storing  seeds  with  alternate  layers  ol 
some  other  material,  as  sand  or  leaves. 

Strobilus  or  Strobile.     A  cone  (e.g.  Pine,  Lycopodium). 

Stumpage.     The  standing  timber. 

Style.     The  stalk,  if  present,  that  joins  the  stigma  to  the  ovary. 

Sucker.  A  shoot  from  an  underground  root  or  stem;  often  ap- 
plied to  an  adventitious  shoot  above  ground. 

Sun-scald.     An  injury  to  trees  by  sun  (page  145). 

Superior.  Applied  to  ovary  when  attached  on  a  level  or  above 
the  other  parts  of  the  flower  (e.g.  Ohio  Buckeye). 

Surveyor-general.  The  officer  whose  duty  it  is  to  measure  or  to 
direct  the  measurement  of  logs  and  lumber. 

Sylviculture.  A  synonym  of  the  term  forestry;  the  growing  of 
trees  in  groups. 

Tangential  sawing.  The  common  way  of  cutting  logs  by  which 
the  boards  on  each  side  of  the  centre  board  are  sawed  by 
a  cut  that  is  tangent  to  the  annual  rings.  This  method 
serves  to  bring  out  the  grain  of  wood  most  conspicuously. 

Tap-root.     A  central  root  running  deep  into  the  soil. 

Tensile  strength.  The  force  which  resists  breaking  or  drawing 
asunder. 

Tent-caterpillars.  Caterpillars  that  build  silky-like  tents  on  trees 
and  other  plants. 

Thorn.     A  hardened,  sharp-pointed  branch. 

Tomentose.     Clothed  with  matted  woolly  hair. 

Top-worked.  Said  of  trees  that  are  grafted  or  budded  at  some 
distance  above  the  ground. 

Transit.     A   surveyor's   instrument   for   measuring   angles,   etc. 

Transpiration.  The  process  by  which  water  is  taken  up  by  the 
roots  of  plants  and  given  off  to  the  air  through  the  leaves 
and  branches. 

Tree.  A  perennial  wroody  plant  with  a  single  stem  which  from 
natural  tendencies  generally  divides  into  two  or  more 
branches  at  some  distance  from  the  ground. 

Tree-crown.     That  part  of  a  tree  that  is  branched,  forming  a  head. 

Tree-digger.  Ordinarily  a  plough-like  implement  having  a  sharp 
knife-like  blade  that  is  drawn  through  the  soil  by  a  team 
and  cuts  the  roots  off  the  trees  at  a  distance  from  the  base 
of  the  tree-trunk.  Where  large  quantities  of  trees  are  to 
be  dug  this  is  a  most  important  implement.  There  are 


GLOSSARY.  317 

various  kinds:  one  style  cuts  on  both  sides  of  the  row  at 
one  time. 

Tri.    Prefix,  meaning  three. 

Triangulation.     The  method  of  survey  by  dividing  into  triangles. 

Tripod.     A  three-legged  support  for  an  instrument. 

Turgid.  Distended;  applied  to  leaves  and  other  parts  when 
filled  with  water. 

Umbel.  An  umbrella-like  form  of  inflorescence  (e.g.  flower  clus- 
ters of  Caraway,  Parsnip). 

Unisexual.  Bearing  either  male  or  female  organs,  not  both  (e.g. 
flowers  of  Willows). 

Variety.     A  distinct  and  valuable  variation  from  the  original. 

Valve.     One  of  the  parts  of  a  dehiscent  pod. 

Valvate.     Opening  by  valves. 

Volume.     Amount  or  mass  of  a  tree  or  log. 

Water  capital.    The  entire  water  of  the  earth. 

Weed.  A  plant  out  of  place,  a  generally  troublesome  plant,  not 
of  any  appreciable  economic  value. 

Whorl.  Applied  to  leaves  when  arranged  in  a  circle  around  the 
stem. 

Wings  of  a  leaf.     The  expanded  portion;  the  blade.     (Fig.  15.) 

Windbreak.  A  single  row  or  belt  of  trees,  which  serves  as  a  pro- 
tection from  wind. 

Wood.     The  hardened  tissue  of  a  stem;  a  forest. 

Working-plan.  A  prearrangement  of  the  method  of  growing  and 
harvesting  a  forest  crop  of  a  particular  tract. 


A  LIST  OF  THE  BEST  BOOKS  ON  FORESTRY. 

AMERICAN  BOOKS. 

The  Adirondack  Spruce,  by  Gifford  Pinchot.     Pub.  by  The  Critic 

Co. 
The  White  Pine,  by  Gifford  Pinchot  and  Henry  S.  Graves.       Pub. 

by  The  Century  Co. 

A  First  Book  of  Forestry,  by  Filibert  Roth.     Pub.  by  Ginn  &  Co. 
Practical  Forestry,  by  A.  S.  Fuller.     Pub.  by  Orange-Judd  Co. 
North  American  Forests  and  Forestry,  by  Ernest  Bruncken.     Pub. 

by  G.  P.  Putnam  &  Sons. 

Practical  Forestry,  by  John  Gifford.     Pub.  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Scribner's  Lumber  and  Log  Book,  by  S.  E.  Fisher,  Rochester,  New 

York. 
Forestry  in  Minnesota,  by  Samuel  B.  Green.     Geo.  and  Nat.  Hist. 

Survey  of  Minnesota. 

Forest  and  Water,  by  Abbot  Kinney,  Post  Publishing  Co. 
Report  of  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division 

of  Forestry,  1895. 

Reports  of  the  Forest  Commission  of  Maine,  1896. 
Reports  of  the  Chief  Forest  Fire  Warden,  Minnesota. 
Report  of  the  Clerk  of  Forestry  for  Ontario. 
Report  of  the  Fisheries,  Game,  and  Forest  Commission  of  the  State 

of  New  York. 
Sylva  of  North  America,  12  vols.     Prof.  C.  S.  Sargent.      Pub.  by 

Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Economics  of  Forestry,  by  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow.     Pub.  by  Thomas  Y. 

Crowell  &  Co. 

FOREIGN  BOOKS. 

The  Forester,  2  vols.,  by  Brown  &  Nisbit.     Pub.  by  William  Black- 
wood  &  Sons. 

818 


A  LIST   OF  THE   BEST   BOOKS  ON   FORESTRY.          319 

Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry,  4  vols.     Pub.  by  Bradbury,  Agnew 

&  Co. 
Forestry  in  British  India,  by  B.  Ribbentrop.     Pub.  by  Government 

of  India,  Calcutta. 
Studies  in  Forestry,  by  John  Nisbit.     Pub.  by  Clarendon  Press, 

Oxford. 
Our  Forests  and  Woodlands,  by  John  Nisbit.  Pub.  by  J.  M.  Dent 

&  Co.,  London. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  FORESTRY 

AND    OTHER    U.    S.    DEPARTMENTS    OF 

SPECIAL   INTEREST   TO  STUDENTS. 

All  of  these  bulletins  and  many  other  publications  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  are  very  desirable  for  students  of  forestry 
and  contain  the  best  special  work  in  their  several  lines.  They  are 
sent  out  free  of  charge.  All  from  the  Bureau  of  Forestry  except  as 
noted. 

Forest  Influences,  Bulletin  No.  7. 

Report  on  the  use  of  Metal  Railway  Ties  and  on  Preservative  Proc- 
esses for  Wooden  Ties,  Bulletin  No.  9. 
Timber  Physics,  Bulletin  No.  8. 
Timber,  Bulletin  No.  10. 

Some  Foreign  Trees  for  the  Southern  States,  Bulletin  No.  11. 
The  Timber  Pines  of  the  Southern  United  States,  Bulletin  No.  13. 
Nomenclature  of  Arborescent  Flora  of  the  United  States,  Bulletin 

No.  14. 

Forest  Growth  and  Sheep  Grazing,  Bulletin  No  15. 
Forestry  Conditions  and  Interests  of  Wisconsin,  Bulletin  No.  16. 
Check  List  of  the  Forest  Trees  of  the  United  States,  Bulletin  No.  17 
Experimental  Tree  Planting  in  the  Plains,  Bulletin  No.  18. 
Osier  Culture,  Bulletin  No.  19. 
Measuring  the  Forest  Crop,  Bulletin  No.  20. 
The  White  Pine,  Bulletin  No.  22. 

A  Primer  of  Forestry,  Bulletin  No.  24,  Gifford  Pinchot.  Forester. 
The  Forest  Conditions  of  Puerto  Rico,  Bulletin  No.  25. 
Practical  Forestry  of  the  Adirondacks,  Bulletin  No.  26. 
Practical  Tree  Planting  in  Operation,  Bulletin  No.  27. 
The  Big  Trees  of  California,  Bulletin  No.  28. 
The  Forest  Nursery,  Bulletin  No.  29. 
A  Working  Plan  for  Township  40,  Bulletin  No.  30. 
Notes  on  the  Red  Cedar,  Bulletin  No.  31. 

320 


PUBLICATIONS   OF  THE   BUREAU   OF  FORESTRY.       321 

The  Woodsman's  Handbook,  Bulletin  No.  36. 

Seasoning  of  Timber,  Bulletin  No.  41. 

The  Woodlot,  Bulletin  No.  42. 

The  Decay  of  Timber,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  No.  14. 

Important  Philippine  Woods,  by  Capt.  G.  P.  Ahern,  Bureau  of  For- 
estry, Mania. 

Report  of  the  Forestry  Bureau,  Philippine  Islands,  1901. 

Forest  Trees  of  North  America,  Prof.  C.  S.  Sargent,  Report  of  the 
Tenth  Census. 

Forest  Reserve  Manual,  F.  Roth.     Pub.  by  Dept.  of  the  Interior. 

Forestry  for  Farmers,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  67. 


INDEX. 


Abies,  273 

amabilis,  274 

balsamea,  273 

concolor,  274 

grandis,  274 

magnifica,  275 

nobilis,  275 
Acacia,  False,  298 

Threethorn,  297 
Accretion  borer,  192 
Accretion  of  forest,  180 
Acer,  299 

macrophyllum,  300 

negundo,"  300 

rubrum,  300 

saccharinum,  299 

saccharum,  299 
Aceraceae,  299 
Act  for  prevention  of  forest  fires 

in  Minnesota,  257 
Actual  income,  246 
J^sculus  glabra,  301 

octandra,  301 
Agaricus  melleus,  147 
Alarm     about     destruction    of 

forests,  241 

Alkali  soils,  Occurrence,  18 
Altimeter,  268 
Amabilis  Fir,  274 
American  Elm,  294 
American  Holly,  298 
American  Larch,  269 
American  Linden,  301 
American  Timber  Trees,  260 
Angle  prism,  189 
Annual  rings,  161 
Antiseptics,  236 
Arboriculture,  13 


Arborvitae,  277 

Areas  of  circles.  Table  of, 

Ash,  Black,  303 

Blue,  303 

Green,  304 

Oregon,.  305 

Red,  304 

White,  304 
Ash-leaf  Maple,  300 
Ash  trees, 

Aspect,  Effect  on  growth,  18 
Aspen,  American,  283 

Large-tooth,  283 
Assimilation,  8 
Axe    and     saw    in    improv 
forests,  78 

Bald  Cypress.  275 
Balm  of  Gilead,  283 
Balsam  Fir,  273 
Bark,  2 
Basal  area,  171 
Basket  Oak,  291 
Basket  Willows,  79 
Basswood,  American,  301 

White,  302 
Baummesser,  191 
Bean,  Indian,  305 
Beech,  Blue,  286 
Betula  lenta,  286 

lutea,  286 

nigra,  285 

papyrifera,  285      . 

populifolia,  285 
Betulaceac. 
Big  Laurel,  296 
Bigtree,  276 
Birch,  Black,  286 

323 


324 


INDEX. 


Birch,  Canoe,  285 

Cherry,  286 

Gray,  285 

Paper,  285 

Red,  285 

River,  285 

Sweet,  286 

White,  285 

Yellow,  286 
Birch  Family,  285 
Birds,  Injuries  from,  137 
Bitternut  (Hickory),  281 
Black  Ash,  303 

Birch,  286 

Cherry,  297 

Cottonwood,  284 

Gum,  302 

Oak,  292 

Pine,  266 

Spruce,  270 

Walnut,  280 

Blowing    out    of    small    seed- 
lings, 56 
Blue  Ash,  303 

Beech,  286 
B.  M.,  181 

Board  measure,  181,  186 
Books  on  Forestry,  318-320 
Borers,  135 

Boucherie  process,  238 
Boxelder,  300 
Box  Oak,  289 
Bristle-cone  Pine,  268 
Broken  branches,  145 
Browsing  of  deer,  137 
Buckeye,  Fetid,  301 

Ohio,  301 

Sweet,  301 

Yellow,  301 
Buds,  5 
Buildings  on  a  Farm,  Location 

of,  56 

Bull  Pine,  265 
Burnettizing  wood,  239 
Bur  Oak,  289 
Butternut,  280 

California  White  Oak,  289 
Calipers,  189 
Callousing,  105 
Canoe  Birch,  285 
Cants,  223 


Canyon  Live  Oak,  291 
Capital  growing  stock,  246 
Capital  in  Wood,  246 
Carpinus  caroliniana,  286 
Castanea  dentata,  288 

punila,  288 

Castanopsis  chrysophylla,  287 
Catalpa  catalpa~  305 

Common,  305 

Hardy,  305 

Speciosa,  305 

Western,  305 
Cattle,  Injuries  from,  137 
Cedar  Incense,  277 

Port  Oxford,  278 

Red,  279 

White,  277 
Cedar  Elm,  293 
Cedar  Pine,  265 
Celtis  occidentalis,  295 
Chama?cyparis  lawsoniana,  278 

thypides,  278 
Charring  timber,  236 
Chemical  pulp,  221 
Cherry  Birch,  286 
Cherry  Black,  297 
Chestnut,  288 
Chestnut  Oak,  290,  293 
Chinook,  32 

Chinquapin,  Golden-leaf,  287 
Chinquapin  Oak,  290 
Circles,  Tables  of  areas  of,  171 
Clear  plantings,  49 
Climbers,  193 
Coal-tar,  235 
Coatings  for  wood,  235 

Charring,  236 

Coal  tar,  235 

Lime  whitewash,  235 

Oil  paints,  235 
Coffee-tree,  298 
Coloring  matter  of  wood,  231 
Color  of  wood  a  test  of  dura- 
bility, 231 

Common  Catalpa,  305 
Compass,  193 

Conifers,  raising  from  seed,  95 
Conservation,  Elements  of,  35 
Conversion  of  cubic  feet  to 

cords,  175 
Cooperage,  219 
Coppice,  73 


INDEX. 


325 


Cork,  Elm,  294 

Cotton    batting    as    protection 

against  browsing,  139 
Cotton  gum,  302 
Cottonwood,  Black,  284 

Seedlings  of,  90 

for  fuel,  166 

Fremont,  284 

Xarrow-leaved,  284 
Covering  of  tree  seeds,  70 
Cow  Oak,  291 
Creosote,  238 
Creosoting  process,  238 
Crooked     trees,    Treatment   of, 

122 

Cross-cut  sawing,  222 
Cross-sectional  area,  167 
Cross-staff  head,  189 
Cuban  Pine,  264 
Cubic     feet,     conversion     into 

B.  M.,  174 
Cubic  feet  in  cord  of  firewood, 

175 

Cucumber-tree,  296 
Cultivation,  55 
Curing  wood,  234 
Curtis,     Production    of    a    hot 

wind,  42 

Cutting  of  timber,  time,  232 
Cuttings,  101 

Bunch  of  willow,  103 

Cultivation  of,  104 

Form  and  size  of,  102 

Planting,  103 

In  solar  pit,  105 

Source  of,  101 

Time  of  planting,  104 
Cypress,  275 
"  Bald,  275 

Lawson's,  278 

Damping  off  of  conifers,  95 
Dead  oil,  238 
Decay  in  wood,  145 
Depth  to  cover  seeds,  97 
Dimick's  Rule,  184 
Diospyros  virginiana,  303 
Dissipation,  elements  of,  27 
Distance  between  trees,  48 

of  trees  from  buildings,  etc., 

45 
Distillation  of  wood,  220 


Distribution  of  seeds,  7 

of  water,  36 
Dominion  Experiment  Station, 

in  Assiniboia,  32 
Douglas  Fir,  273 
Douglas  Spruce,  273 
Doyle's  Rule,  182,  185 
Drouth,  Injuries  from,  144 
Dry  rot  in  wood,  230 
Dry  seeds,  93 
Durability  of  wood,  231 

Eastern  Slope,  Effect  on  growth, 

19 
Elm,  American,  294 

Cedar,  293 

Cork,  294 

Red,  295 

Rock,  294 

Slippery,  295 

White,  294 

Wing,  294 

Elm  tree,  pruned,  126 
Elms,  293 

Engelmann  Spruce,  271 
Equipment  of  Forester,  187 
Estimating  standing  timber,  181 
European     systems     of     forest 

management,  247 
Evaporation  from  soil,  29 

in  winter,  11 
Evergreen  seed-bed,  96 

seedlings,  causes  of  failure  of, 

96 

Evergreen,  sowing  seed,  96 
Evergreens,  transplanting,  96 

Fagus  atropunicea,  287 
Farm  woodlot,  7C 
Fence-posts,     Table     of    dura- 
bility of,  234 
Fetid  Buckeye,  301 
Fighting  Fires,  154 
Files,  193 
Fir,  Amabilis,  274 

Balsam,  273 

Douglas,  273 

Great  Silver,  274 

Lowland,  274 

Noble,  275 

Red,  273,  275 

White,  274 


INDEX. 


Fire  breaks,  153 
Fireproof  wood,  239 
Fires  in  forests,  146 
causes,  151 
crown,  148 
prevention,  152 
spring,  150 

summer  and  autumn,  150 
surface,  148 
underground,  148 
Firs,  273 
Flowers,  6 

Foehn  of  Switzerland,  32 
Fogs  and  clouds,  38 
Food  formation,  8 
Forest,  The,  13 
Forest  and  pasture,  137 
Forest  economics,  241 
Forest-fire  law,  257 
Forest  fires,  146 
Notable,  155 
Forest  floor,  17 
Forest  industries  of  Minnesota, 

242 
Forest  influences,  21 

on  disposal  of  water  supply,  22 
on  fogs  and  clouds,  38 
on  precipitation,  26 
on  water  supplies,  27 
on  wind  and  hail  storms,  37 
Forest  management,  244 
Forest  mensuration,  167 
Forest  planting,  70 
Forest  problems,  195 
Forest  protection,  134 
Forest-pulled  trees,  110 
Forest  regeneration  and  treat- 
ment, 61 
Forest  reservation  and  national 

parks,  250 
Forest  treatment,  61 
Forest  trees  of  the  United  States, 

264 

Forest,  Virgin,  62 
Forest  weed,  76 
Forestry  requires  capital,  244 
Forestry  vs.  Lumbering,  252 
Forests,    windbreaking      power 

of,  30 

Form  factor,  169 
Foxtail  Pine,  268 
Fraxinus  amencana,  304 


Fraxinus  lanceolata,  304 

nigra,  303 

oregona,  304 

pennsylvanica,  304 

quadrangulata,  303 
Freezing  and  thawing,  139 
Fremont  Cottonwood,  284 
Frozen  plants,  Treatment  of,  132 
Frost-cracks,  142 
Frost,  Injuries  from,  142 
Frost,  hardy  trees,  141 
Frost,  tender  trees,  141 
Fruit,  6. 
Fuel  value  of  woods,  225 

values,  Table  of,  227 
Fungi  in  wood,  230 
Fungus  diseases,  146 
Fungus,  Shelf,  230 

Gathering  seeds,  87 
Georgia  Pine,  263 
Germination  of  seeds,  87 
Giant  arborvitse,  277 
Giant  Sequoia,  276 
Girdling  by  mice,  136 
Glauber  salts,  221 
Gleditsia  triacanthos,  297 
Glossary,  307 

Golden-leaf  chinquapin,  287 
Gophers,  132 

Government  supervision  of  for- 
ests in  Germany,  249 
Grades  of  nursery  stock,  110 
Graftage,  107 
Gray  Pine,  263 
Great  Silver  Fir,  274 
Green  Ash,  304 
Grindstone,  193 
Group  method,  66 
Grove,  45 

Growing  stock  of  a  forest,  173 
Growth   of   trees   an   index   to 

value  of  land,  19 
Growth  on  muskegs,  15 
Gum,  Black,  302 

Cotton,  302 

Tupelo,  302 
Gymnacladus  dioicus,  298 

Hackberry,  295 

Hailstones,     Forest    influences 
on,  37 


INDEX. 


327 


Hand  axe,  193 

Injury  from  late  spring  frosts, 

Hard  Maple,  299 

140 

Hardy  Catalpa,  305 

Insects,  Injuries  from,  135 

Heartwood,  3 

Insects,  boring,  135 

coloration,  3 

eating,  135 

Heaving  out  by  fro?t,  140 

sawfly,  134 

Heeling'in,  116 

sucking,  135 

Height  accretion,  176 

Instruments  used  in  forest  men- 

H right  classes,  173 

suration,  187 

Heights    of    one-year-old    seed- 

Interception of  rainfall,  27 

lings,  99 

of  water  in  forests,  27 

Hemlock,  Spruce,  272 

Intolerant,  14 

Western,  272 

Investments  in  timber,  164 

Hemlocks,  272 

Investments,  profits  from,  164 

Hickoria  alba,  282 

Iron  railroad  ties,  237 

glabra,  282 

Ironwood,  287 

lacinosa,  282 

minima,  281 

Jack  Oak,  289,  291,  292 

ovata,  281 

Jack  Pine,  stand  of,  174 

pecan,  281 

Jack  Pine,  263,  266 

Hickorv,  Pignut,  282 

Jeffrey  Pine,  266 

Shagbark,  281 

Jersey  Pine,  265 

Shellbark,  282 

Juglans  cinerea,  280 

Hickorv  Pine,  268 

Juglans  nigra,  280 

Hinckley  fire,  156 
Honey  Locust,  297 

Juniper,  Red,  279 
Western,  279 

Hop  Hornbeam,  287 

Junipers,  279 

Hornbeam,  287 

Juniperus  occidentalis,  279 

Hot  Winds,  42 

virginiana,  279 

Hypsometer,  190 

Kerf,  187 

Ilex  opaca,  298 
Impregnation  on  Beechwood,  237 
Impregnation  methods  for  wood, 
238,  239 

King's  experiments  with  wind- 
'  breaks,  31 
Kniseley's  experiments  on  evap- 
oration from  trees  in  winter, 

Boucherie  process,  238 

11 

Burnettizing  process,  239 

Kyanizing  Process,  238 

Creosoting  process,  238 

Kyanizing  process,  238 

Land  broken  by  dragging  logs, 

Zinc-Tannin  process,  239 

63 

Improvment  cuttings,  78 

Larch,  American,  269 

Improvement  of  land  in  forests, 

Western,  269 

9,  38 

Larches,  269 

Improving  the  woodlot,  79 
Inarching,  107 

Large-tooth  Aspen,  283 
Larix  laricina,  269 

Incense  Cedar,  277 

Larix  occidentalis,  269 

Income  from  forests,  245 

Late  spring  frosts,  140 

Income    from   game   preserves, 

Laurel,  Big,  296 

248 

Lawson's  Cypress,  278 

Increasing  value  of  forests,  246 

Lavers,  105 

Influence  of  forests,  21 

Leather  board,  220 

Injuries  to  trees,  134 

Leaves,  5 

328 


INDEX. 


Leaves  on  conifers,  Time  they 

remain  on  trees,  6 
Level,  187 

Libocedrus  decurrens,  277 
Lice,  135 

Life  history  of  mature  tree,  162 
Light- demanding  trees,  14 
Limber  Pine,  268 
Lime  whitewash,  236 
Linden,  American,  301 
Lindens,  301 

Liquidambar  styraciflua,  297 
Liriodendron  tuliperifera,  296 
Lists  of  trees  for  planting,  52 
Live  fence-posts,  205 
Live  Oak,  291 
Live  Oak,  Canyon,  291 
Loblolly  Pine,  264 
Location  of  buildings,  56 
Locust,  Honey,  297 

Yellow,  298 
Lodgepole  Pine,  266 
Log  rule,  194 
Longleaf  Pine,  263 
Lowland  Fir,  274 
Lumber  industry  in  Minnesota, 
242 

Magnolia,  acuminata,  296 

f  cetida,  296 

Magnolia,  Mountain,  296 
Maple,  Ash-leaved,  300 

Hard,  299 

Oregon,  300 

Red,  300 

Rock,  299 

Silver,  299 

Soft,  299 

Sugar,  299 

Swamp,  300 
Maples,  299 
Marking-pins,  193 
Mass  accretion,  176 
Maul  Oak,  291 
Measurement  of  growing  stock, 

173 

Measurement  of  logs  and  lum- 
ber, 181 
Measurement    of    single     trees, 

167 

Mechanical  condition  of  land  in 
forests,  16 


Mechanical  pulp,  221 

Men    employed     in    lumbering 

industries,  242 
Methods  of  sowing,  63 

of  planting,  54 
Mice,  136 

Mineral  substances,  9 
Mining,  219 
Miramichi  fire,  155 
Mirror  hypsometer,  190 
Mixed  plantings,  50 

list  of  trees  for,  51 
Mocker-nut  Hickory,  282 
Monterey  Pine,  267 
Mossy-cup  Oak,  289 
Moras  rubra,  295 
Mound  layering,  106 
Mound  planting,  73 
Mountain  Magnolia,  296 
Mulberry,  Red,  295 
Mulching,  126 
Muskegs,  Growth  on,  15 

Narrow-leaved    Cottonwood, 

284 

New  Hampshire  Rule,  185,  186 
Noble  Fir,  275 
Normal  growing  stock,  245 
Normal  income,  245 
Norway  Pine,  19,  262 
Notable  forest  fires,  156 

Hinckley,  156 

Miramiche,  155 

Peshtigo,  155 
Nursery,  109 

Soil  and  cultivation,  109 

Work  and  practice,  109 
Nursery  stock,  grades  of,  110 
Nursory  stock,  packing,  129 
Nyssa  aquatica,  302 

sylvatica,  302 

Oak,  Basket,  291 
Black,  292 
Box,  289 
Bur,  289 

California  white,  289 
Canyon  Live,  291 
Chestnut,  290,  293 
Chinquapin,  290 
Cow,  291 
Iron,  289 


INDEX. 


329 


Oak,  Jack,  291,  292 

Pine,  Hickory,  268 

Live,  291 

Jack,  266,  263 

Maul,  291 

Jeffrey,  266 

Mossy-cup,  289 

Jersey,  265 

Pin,  293 

Limber,  268 

Post,  289 
Quercitron,  292 

Loblolly,  264 
Lodgepole,  266 

Red,  291,  292 

Longleaf,  263 

Rock,  290 

Monterey,  266 

Rock  Chestnut,  290 

Norwav,  262 

Scarlet,  292 

Old  Field,  264 

Spanish,  292 

Pitch,  263 

Spotted,  293 

Red,  262 

Stave,  288 

Rock,  266 

Swamp,  290,  293 
Tanbark,  293 

Scrub,  265 
Shortleaf,  264 

Water,  293 

Silver,  267 

White,  288,  289 

Slash,  264 

Yellow,  292 

Spruce,  265,  268 

Oaks,  289 

Sugar,  267 

Odors  of  decaying  wood,  230 

Tamarack,  266 

Ohio  Buckeve,  301 

Torch,  283 

Old  Field  Pine.  264 

Western  White,  267 

Oregon  Ash,  305 

Wevmouth,  262 

Oregon  Maple,  300 
Osier  Willows,  79 

White,  262,  268 
Yellow,  264,  265 

Ostrya  virginiana,  287 

Pine  cuttings  after  being  burned 

over,  71 

Pacific  Yew,  279 

Pinus  aristata,  268 

Packing  nursery  stock,  128 

balfouriana,  268 

Packing  material,  129 

divaricata,  263 

Packing  injuries,  117 

echinata,  264 

Paper  Birch,  285 

flexilis,  268 

Paper  pulp,  220 
Pecan,  281 
Persimmon,  303 

glabra,  265 
heterophvlla,  264 
jeffrevi,  266 

Peshtigo  fire,  155 

lambertiana,  267 

Picea  canadensis,  271 

monticola,  267 

engelmanni,  271 

murrayana,  266 

mariana,  270 

palustris,  263 

rubens,  270 

ponderosa,  265 

sitchensis,  271 

ponderosa  scopulorum,  266 

Pignut  Hickory,  282 

radiata,  267 

Pin  Oak,  293 

resinosa.  262 

Pine,  Black,  266 

rigida,  263 

Bristle-cone,  258 

strobus,  262 

Bull,  265 

taeda,  265 

Cedar,  265 

virginiana,  265 

Cuban,  264 

Pit,  Solar,  105 

Foxtail,  268 

Pitch  Pine,  263 

Georgia,  263 

Plans  for  home  grounds,  45 

Gray,  263 

Planting,  Methods  of,  54 

330 


INDEX. 


Planting    seedlings,    Successive 

steps  in,  116 
Planting   to   renew   timber 

growth,  70 

Plantanus  occidentalis,  297 
Plum,  Wild,  in  groves,  51 
Pocket  gopher,  136 
Pollarding,  73 
Poplar,  283 
Populus,  angustifolia,  284 

balsamifera  candicans,  283 

deltoides,  284 

fremontii,  284 

grandidenta,  283 

tremuloides,  283 

trichocarpa,  284 
Port  Oxford  Cedar,  278 
Possibilities    of    yield    of    our 

forest  area,  243 
Post  Oak,  289 
Prairie  planting,  44 
Prairies,  Why  treeless,  39 
Pressler's     tables     of     relative 

diameters,  178 
Price  of  fuel,  242 
Profit  from  land  stocked   with 

small  timber,  164 
Profits  from  timber  by  seeds,  84 
Propagation,  84 

by  cuttings,  73 

by  division,  84 

by  layers,  105 
Protection  by  windbreaks,  46 

to  buildings,  45 

to  crops  by  windbreaks,  46 
Pruning,  118 

Directions  for,  119 

of  forest  trees,  75 

Purpose  of,  118 

Time  for,  118 
Prunus  serotina,  297 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia,  270 
Puddling,   129 

Quarter  sawing,  224 
Quercitron  Oak,  292 
Quercus  acuminata,  290 

alba,  288 

chrysolepis,  291 

coccinea  292 

densi  flora,  293 

digitata,  292 


Quercus  lobata,  289 
macrocarpa,  289 
michauxii,  291 
minor,  289 
nigra,  293 
palustris,  293 
platanoides,  290 
prinus,  290 
rubra,  291 
velutina,  292 
virginiana,  291 

Rabbits,  Injuries  from,  136 
Rainfall,  Height  of  water  table 

in  the  land,  40 
Raising  coniferous  trees,  95 
Rate  of  growth,  175 

of      growth      of      coniferous 
seedlings,  97 

of  increase  in  timber,  160 

of  standing  timber,  192 
Red  Ash,  304 
Red  Birch,  285 
Red  Cedar,  279 

seeds  of,  95 
Red  Elm,  295 
Red  Fir,  273,  275 
Red  Juniper,  279 
Red  Maple,  300 
Red  Mulberry,  295 
Red  Oak,  291,  292 
Red  Pine,  262 
Red  Spruce,  270 
Redwood,  276 

Regeneration  by  artificial  seed 
ing,  67 

by  coppice,  73 

bv  group  method,  65 

by  natural  seeding,  63 

by  planting,  70 

by  selection,  64 

by  sowing  in  patches,  68 

by  strip  method,  65 

by  sprouts  and  suckers,  73 
Rest  period  in  plants,  11 
Ripening  of  wood,  10 
River  Birch,  285 
Robinia  pseudacacia,  298 
Rock  Chestnut  Oak,  290 
Rock  Elm,  294 
Rock  Maple,  299 
Rock  Oak,  290 


INDEX. 


331 


Rock  Pine,  266 
Root  growth,  Extent  of,  4 
Root  formation  (Figure  2),  4 
Roots,  3 

Roots  on  a  forest-grown  elm,  121 
Rotation,  Time  of,  74 
Rot  in  wood,  230 
Run-off  of  water,  36 
Russell's  experiments,  Effect  of 
wind  on  evaporation,  30 

Sample  acre,  174 

Sample  tree,  173 

Sand  dunes,  156 

Sapwood,  3 

Saw,  193 

Sawflies,  Injuries  from,  135 

Sawing  methods,  222 

Scaling,  182 

Scarlet  Oak,  292 

Schrenk,  Dr.  C.  A.,  article  by,  210 

Scratcher,  193 

Scribners  Rule,  183,  184 

Scrub  Pine,  265 

Second  growth,  12 

Seed,  The,  6 

Evergreen,  bed,  95 
Seeding  of  timber  lands,  63 
Seeding  trees,  1 
Seedlings,  Green  Ash,  110 

Variations,  86 

Height  of  one-year-old,  99 
Seeds,  6,  84 

a'mount  to  use,  97,  98 

classified,  90 

coniferous  tree,  94 

covering,  97 

Distribution  of,  7 

dry,  93 

fleshy -covered,  93 

Gathering,  87 

Germination  of,  87 

Leguminous  tree,  94 

Nut,  94 

Number  per  pound,  98 

Ripening  in  August,  92 

Ripening  in  spring  and  early 
summer,  90 

Sources  of,  84 

Sowing,  92 

Storing  of,  92 

Stratification  of,  88 


Seeds,  Variations  from,  86 
Seed  variations,  86 
Seed  years,  63 
Selection  method,  64 
Sequoia,  Giant,  276 
Sequoia  gigantea,  276 

sempervirens,  276 
Shade-enduring  trees,  14 
Shagbark  hickory,  281 
Shapes  of  trees,  7 
Shellbark  hickory,  282 
Shelterbelt,  45 
Shelterbelts,  plans  of,  58,  59 
Ship-building,  219 
Shortleaf  Pine,  264 
Silver  grain,  224 
Silver  Maple,  299 
Silver  Pine,  267 
Sitka  Spruce,  271 
Size  of  trees,  54 
Slash  Pine,  264 
Sleet  storms,  Injuries  from,  144 

Trees  after,  142 
Slippery  elm,  295 
Slope,  effect  on  growth  of,  19,  20 
Snow  crust,  Injuries  from,  144 
Soft  maple,  299 

pruned  and  unpruned,  125 
Soil  conditions,  15 
Soil,  Improvement  of,  in  wood- 
lands, 9 
Soils,  Alkali,  18 

Relation  of  trees  to,  15 

Washing  of,  17 
Solar  pit,  105 
Sources  of  seeds,  84 
Southern      slope,      Effect     on 

growth,  19 
Sowing  seed,  92 
Spanish  Oak,  292  ' 
Spotted  Oak,  293 
Spring     frosts,    Injuries     from, 

142 

Spring  growth  of  wood,  140 
Spruce,  Black,  270 

Engelman,  271 

Red,  270 

Sitka,  271 

White,  271 

Spruce  Pine,  265,  268 
Spi  jces,  270 
Stave  Oak,  288 


332 


INDEX. 


Steel  chain,  187 
Steel  tape,  187 
Storing  seeds,  88,  89 
Straightening  streams  with  wil- 
lows, 208 
Stratification,  88 
Street  trees,  110,  112,  122 

distance  apart,  123 

kinds  to  plant,  123 

Mulching,  126 

Planting,  123 

Protection,  127 

Pruning,  126 

Setting,  124 

Success  with,  122 

Watering,  126 
Strip  method,  65 
Subsoil,  17 

Succession  of  tree  growth,  62 
Sugar  Maple,  299 
Sugar  Pine,  267 
Sulphite  process,  221 
Sunscald,  144 

Small  dead  twigs  as  a  protec- 
tion against,  75 
Sunscalded     soft     Maple     and 

Basswood,  144 
Surveyor-general    of    logs    and 

lumber,  182 
Swamp  Maple,  300 
Swamp  Oak,  290,  293 
Sweet  Birch,  286 
Sweet  Buckeye,  301 
Sweet  Gum,  297 
Sycamore,  297 
Sylviculture,  13 

Tables: 

Areas  of  circles,  171 

Compound  interest,  172 

Diameter  growth,  166 

Doyle's  Rule,  185 

Durability  of  fence-posts,  234 

Height,  growth,  176 

Height  of  one-year-old  seed- 
lines,  99 

Length  of  time  leaves  of  coni- 
fers are  persistent,  6 

Percentage  of  the  logs,  187 

Pressler's  relative  di 


178 
Scribner's  Rule,  183 


iameters, 


Tables: 

showing    durability  of  fence- 
posts,  234 

Specific    gravities    and    fuel 
values  of  wood,  229 

Tabular  list  of  timber  trees,  264 

Tally-board,  189 

Tallyman,  189 

Tamarack,  269 

Tamarack  Pine,  266 

Tanbark  Oak,  293 

Tangential  sawing,  223 

Taxes  on  timber  lands,  248 

Taxodium  distichum,  275 

Taxus  brevifolia,  279 

Tendency  to   perpetuate  quali- 
ties, 86 

Tensile  strength  of  wood  com- 
pared with  iron,  217 

Tent  caterpillars,  135 

Thinning,  56,  76 

Through    and    through   sawing, 
223 

Thuja  occidentalis,  277 
plicata,  277 

Tilia  americana,  301 
heterophylla,  302 

Timber,  Curing  of,  234 

Timber    famine,    Possibility    of 
a,  241 

Timber  lands,  Management  of. 

244 
Taxes  on,  248 

Toadstool  root  fungus,  147 

Tolerant,  14 

Transit,  187 

Transpiration,  8,  11,  33 

Transplanting,  111 
Evergreens,  114 
Time  of,  113 

Transplants,  110 

Treatment    of    crooked    trees, 
122 

Tree,  The,  1 

Tree  claim,  A  good,  50 

Tree  growth,  8 

Effect  of  slope  and  aspect  on, 
18 

Trees  grown  from  seeds,  84 

Trees,  Cultivation  of,  61 

Trees,     Reproduction     of     de- 
sirable, 86 


INDEX. 


333 


Tree  growth  affected  by  light 
conditions,  13 

Influences  of  a,  21 
Tree  planting,  44 
Tree  planting  on  prairies,  44 
Trees  for  mixed  plantings,  50 

List  of,  51 
Trees  protect  one  another,  14 

Shape  of,  7 
Triangulation,  168 
Tsuga  canadensis,  272 

mertensiana,  272 
Tulip  tree,  296 
Tupelo,  Gum,  302 

Ulmus  alata,  294 

americana,  294 

crassifolia,  293 

pubescens,  295 

racemosa,  294 
Undergrowth  in  forests,  16 
Unproductive  forest  land,  247 
Uses  of  wood,  217 

Value    of    forest    industries    of 

Minnesota,  242 
Variations  from  seeds,  86 
Virgin  forest,  62 
Volume  of  felled  tree,  170 

of  standing  timber,  167 

of  standing  tree,  169 

Wahoo,  294 
Walnut  Family,  280 
Walnut,  Black,  280 

White,  280 
Washing  of  soils,  17 
Waste  in  forests,  77 
Water,  amount  transpired,  33 
Water  capital,  Circulating,  23 
Water  capital,  Fixed,  23 
Water,  conservation  of,  35 
Water  discharged  by  Rhone,  24 
Water,  Distribution  of,  24 
Water  lost  by  trees  in  winter, 

amount,  11 
Water  Oak,  293 
Water  supplies,  forest  influences 

on,  15,  22 

Water  supply  in  soils,  15 
Water  table  in  land,  Height  of, 

40 


Western  Catalpa,  305 
Western  Hemlock,  272 
Western  Juniper,  279 
Western  Larch,  269 
Weymouth  Pine,  262 
White  Ash,  304 
White  Basswood,  302 
White  Birch,  285 
White  Cedar,  277,  278 
White  Hm,  294 
White  Fir,  274 
White  Maple,  299 
White  Oak,  288,  289 
White  Pine,  262,  267,  268 
Crowded      and     then    open« 

grown,  162 

Largest  cut  in  Minnesota,  160 
Largest  yield   in   Minnesota, 

160 

Open-grown,  164 
White  Spruce,  271 
White  Walnut,  280 
White  Willow,  Injured  by  saw- 
fly,  134 

Whitewash,  236 
Why  prairies  are  treeless,  39 
Willow  Family,  283 

for  fuel,  165 

Willow,  Rate  of  increase,  165 
Windbreaking  power  of  forests, 

30 
Windbreaks   of   White   Willow, 

135 

Windbreaks,  45 
Height  of,  46 
Location  of,  58,  59 
Protection  to  crops,  31,  32 
Trees,  for,  47 
Wind  injuries,  143 
Wind  storms,  Forest  influences 

on,  37 

Winds,  hot,  42 
Wing  Elm,  294 
Wintering  acorns  and  other 

nute,  89 

Winter  injuries,  139 
Wood  and  its  uses,  217 
Wood,  Durability  of,  230 
Woodenware,  217 
Woodlot,  78 

Wood     pulp     and     distillatioq 
products,  220 


334 


INDEX. 


Wood  structure,  222 
Wood-working     industries      of 

Minnesota,  242 

Wood  and  iron  compared,  217 
Wood,  uses  in  car-making,  219 

in  carpentry,  219 

in  cooperage,  219 

in  joinery,  219 

jn  lumbering,  220 

in     manufacturing     of     ma- 
chinery, 220 

in  mining,  220 

in  railways,  219 

in  ship-building,  219 

in  telegraph  poles,  220 

is  made  up  of  cells,  222 

Methods  of  sawing,  222 


Wood,  Curing  of,  234 

Working  plan,  180 

Woody  stem  cross-section,  2 

Yearly  rourd  of  life  in  a  tree,  10 
Yellow  Birch,  286 

Buckeye,  301 

Locust,  298 

Oak,  292 

Pine,  264,  265 
Yew,  Pacific,  279 
Young  foliage  eaten  by  stock, 

137 

Young  growth  injured  in  log- 
ging,  75 

Zinc-Tannin  process,  220 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


DEC  3 
APR  ^  3  192* 

**''*> 

29  19; 

\m' 


Form  L-9-15??i-il,'2' 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILI1 
I     III     II    III     I    I     II     I 


A     001  138048     2 


